Lab Project #1: The CELL

Pictues for this lab are posted on another blog.

What is a cell? A cell can be defined as the basic unit of life. It is where many processes like cell replication and cell metabolism occur. But, at a microscopic level, it may be a little hard to fathom exactly how such a miniature object could be creating and finishing major procedures. So, why not break it down into simplest terms with a three-dimensional model made out of household materials.

This is a model of a cell using the materials: a plastic bag, a styrofoam ball, a marble, yellow, blue, red, and green clay, steel wool, macaroni noodles, raisins, the candy dots, a candy peanut, rubber bands, and straws. Starting with the cell itself, I used a plastic bag for the cell membrane and blue clay for the foundation of the cell. The cell membrane is what helps protect the cell and only lets particular substances inside and outside the cell. Next, which is the nucleus, I used half a styrofoam ball and cut a fourth of a section out of it to mold the marble inside it, which represents the nucleolus. Then, I used yellow clay and formed it around the styrofoam ball to give it the appearance of a nuclear membrane. The nucleus is the storage site for genetic information, such as DNA and RNA. Inside the nucleus, is the nucleolus, where tiny chromosomes that hold our genes is located. After the nucleus, is the endoplasmic reticulum. This has two features: rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. I used steel wool to represent the rough with red clay dots to stand for the ribosomes that are attached to the rough E.R.; then I used elbow macaroni for the smooth E.R. The rough endoplasmic reticulum, that is studded with the ribosomes, is the center of protein synthesis, which is assisted by the ribosomes. And the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the location for synthesis of a type of fat called phosopholipids. Next, are the lysosomes, for which I used the candy dots to model. Lysosomes takes the proteins and lipids from the endoplasmic reticulum and transports them to the golgi apparatus. For the golgi apparatus, I used the material of rubber bands. The golgi apparatus further modifies the proteins and lipids transported by the lysosomes. The next part, the vesicles, I chose raisins to represent them. Vesicles breakdown cell substances. Then, for the mitochondria, I used the candy peanut. The mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell, because this is where energy conversion occurs, called cellular respiration. And lastly, I used a bundle of straws to represent the interior of cilia. Cilia allows parts of the cell to move, allowing processes to occur and continue. There are also smaller models that I created of some of processes that happen inside the cell.

This is a model of mitosis. The materials I used are: red, yellow, and green clay, the candy dots, and rubber bands. Mitosis is a way for cells to replicate (happens in the nucleus) and it occurs in four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. In all four phases, I used the green clay to stand for the nucleus, the red and yellow clay for the chromosomes, and the dots and rubber bands for the spindles. In prophase, the chromosomes and spindles begin to form. Then, in metaphase, the spindles line the chromosomes along the center of the nucleus. Next, in anaphase, the spindles pull the chromosomes apart and pull them towards opposite ends of the nucleus. And last, in telophase, the chromosomes start to turn back into bundles of chromosome material, called chromatin, as the spindle fibers disappear. The cell splits and creates two identical cells.

This is a model of DNA replication. The materials I used are: green floral wire and twist ties. The green floral wire represents the backbone of the DNA strands. And the twist ties represent the complementary base pairs that connect the DNA strands together. In DNA replication, part of the strand unzips and allows for a new strand to be copied and made from the old strand.


This is a model of transcription. The materials I used are: green floral wire, black floral wire, and sour gummy worms. I used the green floral wire for DNA and the black floral wire for RNA. Then, I used sour gummy worms for the complementary base pairs on the DNA and RNA strands. In this process, that also occurs in the nucleus, the DNA strand is broken apart in the middle in order for the RNA strand to connect to it with its base pairs and creating messenger RNA (mRNA). Then, mRNA takes the template of information provided by the DNA strand and transfers it to the process of translation.

This is a model of translation. The materials I used are: black floral wire, yellow and green clay, the candy dots, and sour gummy worms. Starting with the RNA backbone, I used the black floral wire. Then, I used the sour gummy worms to represent the base pairs in mRNA. Next, I had the yellow clay stand for the ribosome. The ribosome is where protein synthesis occurs. Then, I used the green clay to represent transfer RNA and the candy dots to stand for proteins. Transfer RNA (tRNA) is a molecule that transports the proteins to the ribosome for use in building long chains of proteins. In the process of translation, the mRNA binds to the ribosome along with tRNA. The ribosmome then moves along the mRNA, three base pairs at a time. Then, each base pair initiates what proteins shall be made and added to the long chain of proteins connected to the tRNA. The process ends when one of the proteins says "stop." The mRNa and tRNA release from the ribosome and the process is complete.

The cell is the basic unit of life and contains many processes like cell replication and cell metabolism. In order understand the cell, I made models of the cell and its basic parts, cell replication, and cell metabolism out of household materials. This project was very helpful for my learning style. It gave me a hands-on experience to understanding how the cell was structured and how it functioned. I was able to finally grasp the processes of mitosis, DNA replication, transcription and translation.

Ethical Issue Paper #1: Genetic Engineering

To be Scientifically Altered or not To Be

Life is always changing. The trees respond to the change of the seasons by shedding their outfit of leaves for the winter and sprouting new life for the spring. Bears prepare themselves during the warmer parts of the earth's weather to hybernate in the colder months. And catepillars form and live in a chrysallus to metamorphasize into a beautiful butterfly. But, all of these changes happens with the aid of nature's self-organizing system. What about changes in living things that occur scientifically? Actually, it is quite possible. During the months of winter, strawberries can now withstand the frost created by the cold and still be sold

during their seasonal months. Tomatoes can have a longer shelf life and can appear plumper and more colorful than before. And embryonic tissue can be used for stem cell research to help combat life threatening diseases. But, what are the consequences of a scientifically altered world? The process of genetic engineering that creates such things described before, has created a mass collection of opposing viewpoints.

One viewpoint, given by the Littletree Oriental Healing Arts, that supports genetic engineering, is the importance of recombinant DNA synthesis of human insulin. After the discovery of type I and type II diabetes, insulin had to be processed in order for the indivdual's survival. The first types of insulin were created from slaughtered pigs, but are now being phased out by new insulin. This new insulin, made by the recombinant DNA process, is made in bacteria, and now in yeast cells, in a way that the structure is identical to the natural insulin molecule. And when it is used, the geneticaly modified insulin is indistinguishable from pancreatic insulin. The new method of recombinant DNA syntheis of insulin is still under continous study and evaluation to ensure a complication free product for every individual. Although this viewpoint provides a positive stance, there are also many who do not agree with the use of genetic engineering.

Another viewpoit, provided by Ron Epstein, that opposes genetic engineering, is the awareness of specific difficulties with genetic engineering. Organsims that are created with unnatural combinations of genes and integrated into natural ecosystems, have a unique power to disrupt the equilibria that is maintianed in those ecosystems. And ecosystems may not be able to deal with the genetically modified organsims possible threats, because they were not designed to deal with unnaturally occuring species. For example, viruses that enter genetically engineered cells in the environment, can transfer the DNA structure of those cells to newly created viruses and spread to the viruses' new hosts. Then, that could lead to an epidemic, killing humans, animals, or plants. Another example, are in plants, that are genetically modified to be herbicide and pesticide resistant. It could lead to the creation of "super weeds" and "super pests" if they become resistant to the chemicals being used. This will create the viscious cycle of using stronger types of genetically altered plants to resist the stronger chemicals. Then leading to the exstinction of surrounding plants, birds, moths, and butterflies. And lastly, the genetic engineering of new types of insects, birds, fish, and animals, can displace natural species and squew the balance of other species due to genetically engineered behavior patterns. These two viewpoints share several differences in the issue of genetic engineering.

The first viewpoint, provides a positive outlook and an actual occurance on the use of genetic engineering. It uses a process that provides an indivdual a part of their body system that they could not produce themselves. And it gives the person a chance for a longer lifespan with comfort and ease. Whereas, the second viewpoint, provides a negative outlook and is used in hypothetical terms on the use of genetic engineering. It states several examples of disrupting the equlibria in natural ecosystems from genetically altered plants and animals. It gives the natural ecosystems a chance for a shorter lifespan from unnatural organsims contaminating the natural processes of life. While the first viewpoint presents the possibility for life in the present, the second viewpoint presents the possibility for death in the future.

Life is always changing in accordance with the earth's natural processes. But, life is also changing with the scientific processes of gentic engineering. The importance of recombinant DNA in synthesis of human insulin provides diabetics with treatment that matches identically with the natural molecule, and with the hope of no side effects. But on the other hand, the introduction of genetically engineered organsims into naturally assembled ecosystems can create damaging and irrevocable reacations. hope that genetic engineering can reach a happy medium in the future and maybe only be used for specific things, like creating insulin, instead of being used with ecosystems, like "new" plants and animals. We can only go so far to being scientifically altered before it is too late to go back.

Sources:

Pictures:

1. www.hgalert.org/pix/lookHear.gif

2. www.cartoonstock.com/lowres/for01691.jpg

Articles:

1. Recombinant DNA technology in synthesis of human insulin (provided by Littletree.com)

2. Some specific difficulties with genetic engineering (provided by Genetic Engineering and its Dangers by Rob Epstein)

Compendium Review #2 Chapters 17-21

1. The phases of mitosis: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase which produce two identical haploid daughter cells.

2. The transcription of DNA and RNA, producing mRNA.

3. The translation of mRNA with tRNA in a ribosome.

4. A cancer cell

5. The process of meiosis seperated in meiosis 1 and 2. Also have the phases prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase that occur twice to produce four haploid daughter cells. Are not identical.

6. The process of fertilization, when a sperm nucleus and an egg nucleus eventually become enclosed within a nuclear envelope.

I. Genetics

A. Chromosomes

1. Description and function

2. Karyotype

B. Mitosis

1. Prophase

2. Metaphase

3. Anaphase

4. Telophase and cytokinesis

C. DNA replication

D. Gene expression

1. Transcription

2. Translation

E. DNA technology

1. Recombinant DNA

2. DNA sequencing

3. Genetic engineering

II. Cancer

A. Characteristics

B. Development

1. Genetic basis of cancer

a. Normal cells

b. Cancer cells

C. Types of cancer

D. Causes of cancer

1. Genetic causes

2. Environmental causes

a. Bioethical focus: control of tobacco

3. Viruses

E. Detecting skin cancer

1. Seven warning signs

2. Routine screenings

F. Cancer treatments

III. Sexual Reproduction

A. Fertilization

B. Embryonic development

C. Inheritance and natural selection

1. Meiosis

a. Meiosis I

i. prophase

ii. metaphase

iii. anaphase

iv. telophase

b. Meiosis II

i. prophase

ii. metaphase

iii. anaphase

iv. telophase

c. Genotype

i. alleles
d. Phenotype

The inter workings that lie within our bodies are occurring at a constant rate. As a person watches a movie, the internal housing system is creating millions of new cells that will continue to carry out their designated functions. It may not seem that complex, but when a person deeply looks into the woven features of their body system, it becomes a realization that their body contains a totally different world. It is in the confines of the microscopic cells that the processes of genetics, cancer, and sexual reproduction are occurring.

Genetics is the study of specific traits received through inheritance. The role of inheritance cannot begin without the influences of the chromosomes. Located within the nucleus of a cell, chromosomes begin as a mass of chromitin that are, "...condese(d)...when cells divide" (Mader 378). They are made of proteins that give them their particular shape and contain the genetic instructions given by DNA. The human species have, "...46 chromosomes that occur in 23 pairs" (Mader 378). Twenty-two of these pairs are made to perform only specific cellular traits, whereas the twenty-third pair of chromosomes is set aside to operate in accordance with the genes for gender. The access to visual understanding of chromosomes is not only available to scientists, but to anyone who is curious. This type of physical evidence is called a karyotype. In the process of creating a karyotype, white blood cells are separated from a sample of a person's blood. It is then isolated and studied until cell division begins from which a chemical is added to the sample to stop the process in order to see the chromosomes clearly. The karyotype is finished and displayed on a computer for a person to see. Another important feature of genetics is the process of cell division. This is called mitosis.

Mitosis is what makes the chromitin in the nucleus into chromosomes. It consists of four phases that complete the cellular duplication and separation. The first phase, prophase, begins when the nuclear envelope begins to breaks away from the nucleus and the nucleolus disappears. After this happens, centrosomes located externally on polar side of the nucleus, begin the development of spindle fibers. The next phase, metaphase, the nuclear envelope has finally disappeared and now the spindle fibers occupy the space where the nucleus existed. The spindle fibers are fully developed and control the whereabouts of the chromosomes, which are now located in the center of the cell. The third phase, anaphase, the chromosomes split in half and move in opposite directions with the navigation of the spindle fibers. This will ensure that, "...each cell receives a copy of each type of chromosome..." (Mader 382). And the last phase, telophase, the spindle fibers begin to disintegrate as the nucleolus and nuclear envelope reassemble. Inside the reformed nuclear envelope, the chromosomes change back to chromitin. This phase gives the appearance of two identical cells held together by a cleavage furrow. Then the process of cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm of the cell and gives a yield of two identical cells. It is within the chromosomes that are developed from cellular division that gene replication and gene expression occur.

The replication of DNA allows for the double helix strand of base pairs to split and use each single strand, "...as a template for recreating the other half..." (http://www.dnaftb.org/). Then, the enzyme, DNA polymerase, completes the double helix strand with new complimentary base pairs inserted into the old base pairs. The backbones of the two new strands are examined by another enzyme and repaired if there are any breaks in the strand. The process is complete as the two identical helices continue with the replication process. After DNA replication, gene expression occurs. Gene expression consists of two steps called transcription and translation. Transcription is, "...the synthesis of mRNA from a DNA late" (faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu). The DNA strand unwinds and an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to it. During this interlock of DNA and RNA polymerase, the enzyme, "...identifies the start of a gene, which strand is to be copied, and the direction that it is to be copied" (faculty.clintocc.suny.edu). After transcription is completed, the produced mRNA, called mRNA trnascript, is modified and directed to the cytoplasm of the cell. The second step, translation, uses the mRNA transcript produced in transcription for the synthesis of proteins. The mRNA transcript and tRNA, which has a polypeptide chain connected to it, are threaded through a ribosome where complementary base pairs, called codons and anticodons, bind together. After this occurs, another tRNA comes into place of the ribosome and repeats the binding of codons and anticodons. This process continues until the ribosome terminates the process, by, "...reaching a stop codon" (Mader 451). Then, all parts of the process are released and translation is complete. Although these procedures occur naturally within cells, DNA technology has developed other synthetic processes.

DNA technology has discovered three ways of creating genes. The first way, called recombinant DNA, allows genes to be asexually reproduced from two or more different sources. For example, a gene from human DNA and a plasmid from a bacterium are joined together and placed into a host cell, such as the bacterium. Then, the host is cloned and the human gene that was inserted to the bacterium's plasmid now functions within that bacterium. The second way, called DNA sequencing, is a process of using DNA polymerase to make new DNA strands. The chain is then, "...repeatedly replicated..." (Mader 459) from the DNA polymerase. This type of technology can be used in DNA fingerprinting, also known as the human genome project. For example, DNA fingerprinting from a specimen in a crime scene can be used to find and convict the person or people responsible. The last way, called genetic engineering, can enhance a particular substance by splicing genes from another substance and adding it to the original one. For example, certain plants can be given a gene that will make them withstand the use of herbicides and pesticides. Although DNA technology is making headway, the disease, cancer, has not been able to be manipulated and controlled.

Cancer is, "...a cellular disease.." (Mader 404) that differs completely in appearance compared to normal cells. It has many characteristics that sets it apart from normal cells. They are: 1. cancer cells do not contribute to bodily functions 2. they have abnormal nuclei which fail to stop processing their damaged DNA 3. cancer cells never die and keep dividing into infinity (or till the host dies without treatment) 4. they pile up on top of each other forming a tumor 5. cancer cells do not have growth factors because they keep growing and do not stop 6. they can metastasize, which creates new tumors from the original tumor. Also, cancer has a genetic basis for which continues the replication process, like in cell division, but does not terminate. Normal cells within the cell cycle contain proto-oncogenes, which keep the cycle functioning regularly, and tumor suppressor genes, which promote cell death. But when proto-oncogenes mutate and tumor suppressor genes mutate, they produce oncogenes. And oncogenes cause cancer. There are four different types of cancer that can be distinguished by the location of the tumor. The first type, carcinomas are, "...cancers of the epithelial cells" (Mader 407). They can be found in the thyroid, skin, prostate, breast, lung, liver, intestines, and pancreas. The second type, sarcomas, develop in connective tissue such as muscle and bone. The third kind, leukemia, are, "...cancers of the blood..." (mader 407). And the last kind, lymphomas, are found in the lymph tissue. Cancer can be caused by genetics, environmental carcinogens, and viruses. Cancer caused by genetics can occur when a person inherits a mutated tumor suppressor gene in two incidences. For example, in order to have a predisposition to cancer, the person must have received a mutated copy from their father and a mutated copy from their mother. Environmental carcinogens that can cause cancer are radiation (UV light, nuclear fuel, and Xrays), organic chemicals (tobacco smoke), and pollutants (metal, pesticides, and chemicals). For example, the use of tobacco and the link to the cause of cancer has resulted in thousands of deaths each year, that many states are placing high taxes on cigarettes products to hinder the consumer's purchasing of them. And viruses such as hepatitis B and C and HPV have been linked to causing liver and cervical cancer. Although cancer is a very powerful force within the body, there are ways to detect the possibility of early cancer and ways to treat it if necessary.

There are seven warning signs that spell the word CAUTION. They are, "C hange in bowel or bladder habits, A sore that does not heal, U nusual bleeding or discharge, T hickening or lump in breast or elsewhere, I ndigestion or difficulty in swallowing, O bvious change in wart or mole, N agging cough or hoarseness" (Mader 411). There are also routine screening that help keep a look out for developing cancers. They are self examinations for women and men, such as breast and testicles, blood tests, rectal and prostrate examinations fro men, pap tests for women, and the periodic health examination. But, if cancer is detected through routine screenings, there are different types of treatments that can be applied. The first standard method is surgery. Surgery is used when, "...cancer (is) in situ" (Mader 414). But there is always the risk that not all of the cancer cells can be obtained and the second treatment is applied. This is radiation. In this treatment, gamma rays are applied to a part of the infected person's body to break apart chromosomes in the cancer cells. And another common treatment for cancer is chemotherapy. This helps catch cancer cells that have metastasized. This kills the cells by destroying their DNA and DNA synthesis. But chemotherapy can fail, because the cells can build a resistance to the drugs being used. In accordance with cellular production, sexual reproduction creates the very individuals that carry out cellular production.

Sexual reproduction occurs when the sperm from a male is united with an egg of a female, creating a zygote. This is called fertilization. It happens in a series of five steps. In the first step, the sperm navigates it way through the egg's exterior, adhering cells. Then, the sperm's external enzyme caseing breaks down the adhering cells and is able to finally fuse with the egg's internal membrane. The third step consists of the sperm's nucleus entering the cytoplasm of the egg and the outside of the egg releases fertilization enzymes. Lastly, the nucleus of the sperm and egg join together into a nuclear envelope. After fertilization occurs, "...the zygote divides repeatedly as it passes down the oviduct to the uterus" (Mader 356). Then the process of embryonic development occurs. Embryonic development happens within the first couple months of pregnancy. The embryo implants itself within the uterian walls and begins developing the embryonic disk, which contains membranes for blood cell formation, the nervous system, all the major body systems, glands of these body systems. Also the amniotic fluid develops, that protects the embryo. After the membranes have fully developed, the actual start of the heart and nervous system appear. Then, towards the end of the second month of gestation, the umbilical cord connects to the placenta, little limbs begin to pop out of the embryo, sense organs are more defined, and the embryo begins to resemble a human being. Along with the development of a human being, is the importance of inheritance.

Inheritance of particular traits of the father and mother to the offspring consists of a process called meiosis. The beginning of meiosis starts with the pairing of chromosomes inside the parent cell. Then meiosis one begins where prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase one occur. During prophase one, the chromosomes inside the nucleus duplicate and then cross-over, where the identical chromatids are no longer alike. Therefore, "...crossing-over causes the offspring to receive a different combination of instructions than the mother or father received" (Mader 388). Next, in metaphase one, the pairs of the unidentical chromosomes line up at the center of the spindle fibers, which orientates either the mother's chromosomes or father's chromosomes to either pole of the fibers. Then, anaphase one, seperates the chromosome pairs and pulls them to opposite poles of the spindle fibers. Lastly, telophase one, creates the two new diploid daughter cells that contain one chromosome from each pair of chromosomes. But the process of meiosis is not over yet. The process of meiosis two begins where prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase two occur. Each phase happens in the same fashion, but now involve the two daughter cells that were created in meiosis one. Once meiosis is complete, it results in, "...four haploid daughter cells" (Mader 387). It is from the daughter cells created in meiosis that genotypes develop.

Genotype is, "...the genes of an indivdual" (Mader 422) and can be distinguised by their alleles. Alleles are given letters to represent the different types of traits that can be inheritated. For example, if an indivdual inheriates the dominant alleles for brown hair from their father (B) and mother (B), the genotype will be a dominant homozygous pair of BB. The individuals physical appearance or any characteristic of the received genotypes are called phenotypes. For example, an person can either have attached or unattcahed earlobes, a widow's peak or a straight hairline, short fingers or long fingers, freckles or no freckels, color blindness, or a metabolic disorder. These different traits are what creates diversity throughout the existence of life and the basis for natural selection.

It is in the confines of microscopic cells that the processes of genetics, cancer, and sexual reproduction are occuring. The many processes of genetics, such as mitosis, gene replication, and gene expression, can allow the cell to divide through prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase,can create new strands of DNA, can transcribe mRNA, and translate mRNA with tRNA. The cell can also mutate and create an immortal cell called cancer. Cancer differs from normal cells by particular characterisitcs and can be caused by several different things, such as genetics, environmental causes, and other viruses. Fortunately, there are ways to detect cancer, such as the mneunoic of CAUTION and examinations. But, if cancer is detected, it can be treated with surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. The cell can also be produced through fertilization of a sperm and an egg, which leads to embryonic development and the birth of a new individual. While a new indvidual is being created, processes such as meiosis and inheritance are occuring, which passes on the genectic traits of the parents and makes new genotypes and phenotypes. This creates diversity within living things. The individual is an amazing center for natural procedures that connects us back to the beginning of creation.

Sources:

Pictures:

1. img.tfd.com/dorlan/thumbs/mitosis.jpg

2. ghs.gresham.k12.or.us/.../transcript1.gif

3. library.thinkquest.org/C0123260/basic%20knowl...

4. http://www.allthingsbeautiful.com/

5. members.thai.net/m6141/lesson5pic/meiosis-big.gif

6. www.personal.umich.edu/~segeli/fertilization_

Works:

1. Human Biology 10e Sylvia S. Mader

2. www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb/

3. faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu

Self and unit evaluation #1

REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
I am most proud of my genetics lab, my second compendium review, and my ethical issue paper. I felt with these assignments that the material really started to all come together and my thoughts while writing the assignments were flowing a little bit more freely.

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?
I believe that the two assignments that could of needed improvement were my first compendium review and the microscope lab. I felt like I had a lot of incomplete thoughts and had a harder time adjusting to the bulk of the first assignments. But, they were stepping stones to improving my later assignments.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
I believe that my overall grade should be an A for the unit, because I felt like I really tried to aim for the highest grade possibility in my assignments.

4. How could I perform better in the next unit?
I can perform better in the next unit by reading all of the material starting with the PowerPoint, book, and then web links. This would of given me a better idea of what I really need to focus on in the material.

REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")

At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
I felt most engaged with the course after I had finished my genetics lab. I really enjoyed making the genotypes of the offspring match the parent dragon and see what the end results would be. Also, the punnet square was a nice hands-on understanding of how inheritance occurs and to actually see the changes from the parents to the offspring made genetics easier for me to understand.

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
The moment I felt most distanced from the course was the genetics quiz. I had taken it before I had done my second compendium review and the cell lab project, and let me say, I blew it. A lot of the questions I just guessed the answer, and afterwards, I felt like I hadn't covered the material thoroughly enough.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?
The action taken by the teacher, that I found most affirming and helpful, was that he clearly layed out each step that he wanted the class to take in order to successfully understand and complete each assignment. It made it less stressful knowing that I could follow a layout provided by the teacher, and not feel like I was completely at a loss in regards of what to do.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?
The action that I took during this unit that I found confusing was the process of copying labs into the paint program and then uploading them into my blog. I was having the hardest time transferring the labs into paint while I was at home, but at the school, it worked perfectly fine. I still haven't figured out the reason behind the malfunction.

What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
The thing that surprised me the most about the unit is how much I actually retained, genetics especially. I had taken a regular biology class a couple years earlier, and when we started talking about cellular metabolism, it was like the teacher was talking in a foreign language. But now, I can easily visualize the process of replication, transcription, and translation and actually know what is happening.

Pictures for compendium review chapters 1-4

Figure 1: Diagram of an eukaryotic cell

Figure 2: The process of endocytosis and exocytosis

Figure 3: The different types of major tissue: connective, muscular, nervous, and epithelial

Figure 4: Different types of connective tissue: simple and stratified epithelial

Sources:

1. www.rebi.ac.uk/microarray/biology_intro.html

2. www.coolschool.ca/lor/Bl12/unit4//U04L05.htm

3. fig.cox.miami.edu/.../150/physiol/phisiology.htm

4. bima.ipb.ac.id/.../Materi/jaringan_heun.html

Genetics Lab

1. Dragon lab that explored the relationship between genotype and phenotype. The offspring's alleles had to match the parents alleles. They both ended up with the manipulated alleles: Hh (horns), aa and Bb (color), pp (plates), ans ff (fire).

2. An example of phenotype. Two babies have the characteristics of darker skin, three babies have the characteristics of lighter skin.

3. Punnet square of a mono hybrid cross.
of heterozygous parents. Their offspring results in one homozygous dominant, two heterozygous dominant, and one homozygous recessive.

4. Punnet square lab of scenario five that instructed a cross between a heterozygous long-winged fly with a heterozygous long-winged fly. It resulted in one homozygous dominant, two heterozygous dominant, and one homozygous recessive.

The birth of a baby is a life changing event. The moment I saw my daughter, I could not believe how beautiful she was. And I could not believe that her father and I had created such an amazing living thing. I remember after experiencing the first couple days of her life, my mother-in-law kept stating how much she resembled her father, such as the shape of her eyes and lips. But a couple things that really surprised us was the fact that she had blue eyes and light red hair, because her father and I both have dark eyes and dark hair! In relation to genetics, our daughter must of inherited our recessive gene traits, which made her another phase of evolution. Actually, the significance of genes in inheritance is very important because certain genes can either be dominant or recessive and can make an impact in a positive or negative way. In accordance with the genetic lab, they represent examples of how traits from a parent or parents can be affected when passed onto their offspring.

The first lab consisted of the manipulation of genotypes to end up with particular phenotypes. A genotype is the genes of an individual that can be described by alternate forms of genes called alleles. And a phenotype is any characteristic of the individual. For example, in the dragon lab, the parent dragon contained a heterozygous dominant genotype with the alleles Hh for the phenotype of horns. When the offspring was produced from the parent dragon, the alleles had to be manipulated to share the same genotype and appearance of the parent. The second lab also allowed a degree of manipulation of the inheritance of genes by the use of a punnet square.

The second lab consisted of a cross between a heterozygous long-winged fly and another heterozygous log-winged fly. The crossing of the two parents genotypes provided a sense of which offspring would receive dominant genes (allele that presents itself in hetero zygote and masks the expression of the recessive allele) and which offspring would receive recessive genes (allele that presents itself only in homozygous). For example, in the punnet square lab, the heterozygous parent flies made four different crosses in the creation of their offspring. One of the crosses created a recessive homozygous genotype, which contained the alleles ll. Another cross that was created was a dominant homozygous genotype, which contained the alleles LL.

After my daughter was born, my husband and I were surprised to see that our daughter ended up receiving our recessive traits of blue eyes and red hair. Which in turn has made her another phase of evolution. In the dragon lab, the manipulation of genotype's alleles to output certain phenotypes allowed for corresponding changes with the offspring of the parent. In the punnet square lab, the crossing of the two heterozygous parents created offspring of dominant homozygous, dominant heterozygous, and recessive homozygous genotypes. It is from each lab example that the inheritance of genes from parent to child can vary within the limits of what the parents are carrying within their genetic material. In some instances, the inheritance of genes can have a positive effect, such as the forward movement of evolution. For example, in the dragon lab, the parent passed along the trait of fire to its offspring and in turn can be used for efficient survival. In the punnet square lab, one of the crosses created a fly with shorter wings than the parents, which in turn could be beneficial for faster flight speed. Overall, the creation of life is a constant changing force that leads all living things into diversity.

Sources:

Pictures:

1. biologica.concord.org/webtest1/web_labs_genophenpt

2. www.woodrow.org/.../1997/makeface/babystng.gif

3. staff.jccc.net/.../transgenetics/monopunnett.gif

4. www.mhne.com/biosc/genbio/virtual_labs/BL_05/BL_0

Labs:

Dragon: biologica.concord.org/webtest1/web_labs_genophenot

Punnet Squares: www.mhne,com/biosc/genbio/virtual_labs/BL_05/BL_o

Compendium Review Chapters 1-4

The pictures for this compendium review is located on another template.

Table of Contents:
I. Chapter One: Life Science

A. The characteristics of life

1. Organization
a. levels of organization
2. Use of materials and energy
3. Reproduction
4. Growth and development
5. Homeostasis
6. Respond to stimuli
7. Evolutionary history

II. Chapter Two: Chemistry of Life
A. Macromolecules
1. Carbohydrates
a. simple carbohydrates
b. complex carbohydrates
2. Lipids
a. fats
b. oils
c. phospholipids
3. Proteins
a. functions
4. Nucleic acids
1. DNA
2. RNA
3. ATP

III. Chapter Three: The Cell
A. Types of cells

1. Prokaryotic

a. origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts

2. Eukaryotic

a. parts of cell

i. plasma membrane
* diffusion
* osmosis
* facilitated transport
* active transport
* endocytosis and exocytosis
ii. Nucleus
* structure
* functions
iii. Ribosomes
* protein synthesis
iv. Endomembrane System
* endoplasmic reticulum
* golgi apparatus
* lysosomes
v. Cilia and flagella
vi. Mitochondria
B. Cellular respiration and metabolism
1. Glycolysis
2. Citric acid cycle
3. Electron transport chain
C. Fermentation
IV. Chapter Four: Body Systems
A. Types of Tissues
1. Connective tissue
a. Fibrous connective tissue
b. Supportive connective tissue
c. Fluid connective tissue
i. blood
ii. lymph
2. Muscular tissue
a. skeletal
b. smooth
c. cardiac
3. Nervous tissues
4. Epithelial tissue

The study of life can be defined by the science Biology. And the study of human life can be drawn from the study of Human Biology. It is from this world of scientific study that so many theories today have given us a chance to understand the world around us. One of the distinct discoveries of biology is that, "...all living things share the same characteristics" (Mader 2).
These characteristics are: 1. organization, 2. use of materials and energy, 3. reproduction, 4. growth and development, 5. homeostasis, 6. respond to stimuli, and 7. evolutionary history.

The first characteristic, organization, creates a sophisticated step ladder system beginning from the atom, the smallest unit of an element, to the biosphere, which is the entire earth that contains all the living things. In the system of organization, each step leads into the other, for example, atom leading to molecule, molecule to cell, cell to tissue, tissue to organ, organ to organ system organ system to organism, organism to population, population to community, community to ecosystem, and ecosystem to biosphere. This system of organization displays that all livings things are interrelated in some way, from the microscopic to the world. The second characteristic, the use of materials and energy, is a perfect example of how living things need the external environment for survival. For example, the use of food from outside sources, like a bird searching for insects in the environment, is later metabolized and used for energy, like the same bird being able to continue maintenance of its habitat. The third characteristic, reproduction, is a very important element within every species. The reason being is that it, "...create(s) a copy of themselves and ensure(s) the continuance of their own kind" (Mader 4). The fourth characteristic, growth and development, describes that from the development of the first cell, life of the cell, and death of the cell, it is constantly changing. For example, when the first egg cell is fertilized by the sperm cell, it immediately begins to grow at a rapid rate. It develops into a fetus and then to an adult, and eventually perishes after an allotted time frame. The fifth characteristic, homeostatsis, shows that when a living thing reacts to its external environment, the internal environment will be kept in a normal range of limitations. For example, when the temperature changes externally, such as hot or cold, a person will internally sweat to cool down from the hot air, or internally shiver to warm up from the cold air. The sixth characteristic, respond to stimuli, is also another way for living things to maintain homeostasis and survival. For example, if a person is hungry, they are going to respond to food by moving towards it to satiate themselves. And the last characteristic, evolutionary history, explains the, "unity and diversity of life" (Mader 5). It is from evolution that there are so many different living things within the biosphere. Along with common characteristics in all living things, they also contain the macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

The macromolecule, carbohydrates, consists of simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates. The simple carbohydrates are monosaccharides, one of them being the sugar glucose, and disaccharides, one of them being maltose which is created by two glucose molecules. These simple carbohydrates provide quick energy for a living things to facilitate. Complex carbohydrates consist of polysaccharides such as starch(potatoes), glycogen(stored form of glucose in the liver), and cellulose(in plant cell walls). Each of these polysaccharides are broken down to the single sugar unit, glucose, and eventually become stored energy. The second macromolecule, lipids, is broken down into to fats, oils, and phospholipids. Fats and oils are created by the reaction of glycerol molecule with three fatty acid chains, whereas phospholipids contain a phosphate group in place of the third fatty acid chain. There functions consist of long-term energy storage and protection of major organs by creating a barrier in the cell membrane from the external environment. The third macromolecule, proteins, attribute to many different systems that keep a living thing in working order. Proteins help catalyze reactions, transport cells, toughen immune systems, influence hormones, and allow movement for cells. There several different types of proteins that have chains of amino acids, each containing a particular function. And proteins cannot function properly without the composition of their usual shape, if something goes awry, they are discarded. The last macromolecule, nucleic acids, consist of DNA, RNA, and ATP. DNA contains the genetic code, which aids in the sequence of protein's amino acids. It's structure is made of the sugar deoxyribose, the bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytocine, and a phosphate. It is a double stranded, double helix, that creates a spiraling ladder appearance. The steps of the ladder contain the base pairs (adenine with thymine and guanine with cytosine) that is an on-going replication of the gene sequence. RNA aids in the translation of DNA's instructions for the sequence of amino acids and is a main component in protein synthesis. Unlike DNA, RNA is made of the sugar ribose, but contains the same bases, except for thymine, where uracil is used. And it is only a single stranded. Lastly, ATP, is the high energy molecule of the cell, because during cellular processes, it releases energy that is used to do metabolic activities. In regards to cellular processes, the cell contains several different parts and performs many different procedures that are important to the existence of life.

The cell, which is the, "...basic unit of life" (Mader 42), consist of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells were the first cells to develop in the environment. They lack a nucleus and are bounded by a double membrane, which prokaryotic cells are not, but scientific study has discovered that from prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells were developed. For example, mitochodria in animal cells are bounded by a double membrane and chloroplasts in plant cells also contain a double membrane. This might of occurred from a prokaryotic cell engulfing a eukaryotic cell and in turn evolving an entirely new structure of cells. Eukaryotic cells, which contain a nucleus, consists of many different parts that enable many different functions. The first part of a eukaryotic cell, which is also in porkaryotes, is the plasma membrane. This is the phospholipid layer that separates the external environment from the internal environment of the cell. And allows particular particles to enter and exit through processes of diffusion, osmosis, facilitated transport, active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis. Diffusion can be described as a constant of movement of molecules that distribute from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until everything is equally distributed. And it allows molecules to move freely across the plasma membrane without the use of cellular energy. Osmosis is the, "...diffusion of water across a plasma membrane" (Mader 47) that also is tonic, which contains a concentration of solute within the water. This process, without the use of cellular energy, helps particles pass through the plasma membrane that cannot move into the structure freely. Facilitated transport, which also requires no cellular energy, helps solutes pass through the plasma membrane with the assistance of proteins. For example, a solute of glucose can be moved across the membrane with the assistance of the glucose transporter protein. Active transport requires the cellular energy broken down by ATP to move molecules against the natural flow of concentration. For example, the sodium potassium pump "...pumps ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell" (www.highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware) moving the ions from lower concentration to higher concentration. And lastly, the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis, uses cellular energy to either engulf a substance into the plasma membrane(endocytosis) or secretes a substance out of the plasma membrane. The second part of an eukaryote is the nucleus. The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear envelope and contains rodlike structures called chromatin. Inside the chromatin, or chromosome, is the storage site for the genetic code, where DNA and RNA specify the proteins of the cell. The third part of the cell are the ribosomes. Located in the endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes perform the important function of protein synthesis of the cell. For example, ribosomal RNA, or rRNA, helps develop the twenty different amino acids through the chemical pathway process, which develops a protein properly in a series of products and reactants. The fourth part of an eukaryote is the endomembrane system that contains the endoplasmic reticulum, the golgi apparatus, and the lysosomes. The endoplasmic reticulum contains two parts. The first part is called the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where protein synthesis occurs by the implanted ribosomes. Then the synthesized proteins are either included within the rough ER or exported to other parts of the cell. The second part is called the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, where synthesis of phospholipids occurs. After the proteins and phopholipids are sythesized they are transported to the golgi apparatus. At this location, the received proteins and lipids are modified by processing, packaging, and secretion. In the membranes of the golgi apparatus are sacs called lysosomes. Lysosomes have enzymes that break down substances that help sustain the strength of a cell. The fifth part of an eukaryotic cell are the cilia and flagella. Cilia and flagella, both hairlike structures, allow the cell to move. For example, the digestive tract is lined with cilia in order for particles to move along the intestines for modification; and the sperm cell's tail is a flagellum, that allows it to swim towards an egg cell. And the sixth part of an eukaryote is the mitochondria. The structure of a mitochondria is enclosed by a double membrane and contains a internal matrix that is surrounded by small shelves called cristae. It is often called the, "...powerhouse of the cell..." (Mader 52) because it breaks down glucose into carbon dioxide and water and converts glucose energy into ATP. This process that occurs in the mitochondria is called cellular respiration, which consists of three cycles. The first cycle is called glycolysis. In glycolysis, glucose enters the cytoplasm of the cell and into the mitochondria. The process then, "...converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, and makes energy in the form of two molecules of ATP" (http://en.wikipedia.org). The next cycle is the citric acid cycle. This cycle, "...completes the breakdown of glucose" (Mader 54) by releasing carbon dioxide and producing two ATP per glucose. The last cycle, the electron transport chain, accepts electrons from glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, and passes them to next step. It is from this transfer of electrons that energy is secreted and used to produce thirty-two ATP per glucose. Although, if oxygen is not available in cells, the electron transport chain will discontinue operation and lead to fermentation. This produces very little ATP and creates an environment of toxicity to cells called lactate. Along with the structure and functions of a cell, combinations of cells called tissue, that perform a common function, that are vital to the continuance of life.

There are four major kinds of tissue. They are connective tissue, muscular tissue, nervous tissue, and epithelial tissue. Connective tissue, "...binds and supports body parts" (Mader 62). This type of tissue is very flexible because of its specialized cells, ground substance, which can be either solid or liquid, and protein fiber, such as collagen, reticular, and elastic fibers. There are three types of connective tissue. The first type, fibrous connective tissue, is a jellylike substance that allows organs to expand, can be stored for insulation, and can create tendons and ligaments for proper movement. For example, fibrous connective tissue can be within the lungs (expansion), around kidneys (insulation), and between muscle to bone (tendons). The second type, supportive connective tissue, is made up of kinds of cartilage that are defined by the type of tissue fiber. This is also very flexible, but grows at a slower rate than fibrous tissue. They can be found in the nose, outer ear, and wedges of knee joints. The last type, fluid connective tissue, consists of blood and lymph. The blood, "...transports nutrients and oxygen to tissue..." (Mader 64) and contains red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The red blood cells carry oxygen to the cells, the white blood cells engulf pathogens and create antibodies, and platelets help the clotting process during an injury. The second major kind of tissue is muscular tissue. Muscular tissue allows the free movement of body parts. It is made up of proteins actin and myosin, which contribute to three types of muscular tissue. The first type, skeletal muscle, have striped cells due to the placement of the proteins and are connected with voluntary movement of body parts. Another kind, smooth muscle, have the appearance of smooth cells. It is an involuntary muscle movement that happens within the walls of the digestive tract and blood vessels. And the last type, cardiac muscle, has the combined appearance of the skeletal and smooth muscle. This muscle type is also involuntary and is accounted for the pumping of the heart. The third major kind of tissue is nervous tissue. Nervous tissue is made of, "...nerve cells called neurons and neuroglia..." (Mader 66). The neurons is a particular cell that has the structure of a dendrite, which is an antenna that receives signals from the senses, an axon, which is a conductor of nerve impulses, and a cell body, which is the housing area for the nucleus and cytoplasm. The neuroglia are present for the purpose of constant nourish of the neuron, so it will continue working efficiency. The functions of the nervous tissue are the response to stimuli by input of the senses, then an understanding of the stimulus being received by internal intergration, and the action movement to stimuli by motor output. The last type of major tissue is epithelial tissue. Epithelial tissue consists of, "...tightly packaged cells that form a continuous layer...covers surfaces and lines body cavities" (Mader 68). There are two types of epithelial tissue called simple and stratified epithelia. Simple epithelia protects, absorbs nutrients, and can be a part of active transport with a single layer of tissue. For example, the air sacs in the lungs are lined with simple epithelia to protect the this organ, the digestive tract is lined with this type of epithelia to modify nutrients, and there is a layer of this tissue in particular glands, such as the thyroid and sweat glands. Stratified epithelia also helps protect the certain body parts, but with several layers of tissue. This can be found within the esophagus and vagina.

Human biology has given us a chance to understand the world around us. "...(A)ll living things share the same characteristics" (Mader 2) such as organization, use of materials and energy, reproduction, growth and development, homeostatsis, respond to stimuli, and an evolutionary history. Life is made up of macromolecules, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, that carry out processes such as energy release and protein synthesis. Also, living things can distinguised by the makeup of two types of cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic, which both contain such structures as a plasma membrane and mitochondria, and functions of diffusion and cellular respiration. Lastly, the four major kinds of tissue, connective, muscular, nervous, and epithelial, aid in body support, free movement of body parts, response through sensory receptors, and protections of external and internal surfaces. It is with each section that a living thing is able to thrive properly within its environment.

Sources:
Human Biology 10e Sylvia S. Mader

www.highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_respiration