Self and Ubit Evaluation: Unit 4

REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE 1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of? The three aspects of the assignments that I have submitted that I am most proud of are the two compendium reviews and the fetal development lab. The aspects that I am proud of in the compendium review are the topics of fertilization and birth and the topic of humans are primates, I really enjoyed writing about these subjects, because I already have a personal interest, so it just added to the learning of new information. And, the aspects I am proud of in the fetal development lab are the descriptions of each stage and the pictures that show the development of the fetus. I really was enthralled with the assignment, due to the topic. 2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement? The two aspects of my submitted assignments that could have used some improvement were my demographics lab and my ethical issue paper. The aspects in my demographics lab that could of used improvement were some of the answers I provided to the given questions. I felt like I could of gone into a little bit more detail. And, the aspects in my ethical issue essay could of actually been finished, but I felt like I did not really understand the information to write about it. 3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? I believe my overall grade for this unit should be at least a low A, because I did apply myself in all of the other subjects, except the ethical issue essay. 4. How could I perform better in the next unit? I can perform better in the next unit by maybe making more time in understanding the issue regarding the essay. REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire") 1. At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course? The moment that I felt most engaged with the course was the section on reproduction. I really enjoy this topic, because I have had personal experience. And I am interested in the given information, due to one of my many career dreams of becoming a birth doula. 2. At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course? The moment that I felt most distanced from the course was the topic for the ethical issue essay. While I was reading the information, I felt a little confused and did not exactly know what to write about. So, I ended up not doing the assignment. 3. What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful? The action that the teacher took during this unit that I found most affirming and helpful was the overall layout for the unit. It was very easy to understand what information needed to be learned and what criteria needed to be met for the given assignments. 4. What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? During this unit, I did not find anything puzzling or confusing. 5. What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.) The thing that surprised me most about this unit was the information about deep time history. I really liked the analogy of the toilet paper roll to view the history of the Earth. It gave a great visual and understanding as to what happened when.

Unit 4 Lab Project: List of Species

List of Species:
1.
a) Scientific name: Tibicen sp.
b) Common name: Cicada
c) Interaction according to ecological principles: commensal: There are a ton of Cicadas in my backyard, but I hear them more than I see them. I happened to catch one on one of my fruit trees and was very excited to show my daughter her first sighting of a new insect. The relationship between the Cicada and me is commensal, because the Cicada was happily resting on a tree and I just observed it.
d) No, I do not think this is a domesticated species, because it lives underground for seventeen years, receiving its nutrients from the roots of trees. And, when they finally come out of the ground, I do not know of any human use for them.
2.
a). Scientific name: Homo sapien
b). Common name: Human
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: symbiotic: The relationship between my daughter and myself is symbiotic, because I am helping aid her into adulthood with values, strength, confidence, love, and respect and she is teaching new insights about life each and every day. We are both benefiting from one another for the best means of survival.
d). Yes, I do think this is a domesticated species, because Homo sapiens have evolved to living in separate homes from one another and living off the supermarket, instead of living off the land.
3.
a). Scientific name: Euschistus servus
b). Common name: Brown Stink Bug
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: predation: Unfortunately, my step dad sprayed insecticide along the perimeter of the house, so most of the insects that travel along the proximity of the house, end up keeling over by the next day. I found the Brown Stink Bug on its back, dead as a doornail. The relationship is predation, because of the use of insecticide to kill off the remaining insects around the outside of the house and this situation is definitely parasitic, instead of mutualistic.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because it seems to always be lingering around the human species living areas. And, if the species feels threatened, it can help ward off any unwanted insects that people may not want in their homes.
4.
a). Scientific name: Quercus petraea
b). Common name: Evergreen Oak Tree
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: symbiotic: The relationship between the Evergreen Oak tree and myself is symbiotic, because we both benefit. This oak tree provides shade in the heat of summer, keeping the internal and external of the house nice and cool, and provides shelter during moments of precipitation. And, the oak tree receives nourishment of regular watering by the nearby hose.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because it is used for building many varieties of shelter, furniture, etc., and the oak tree is allowing itself to be known by its seeds and production process.
5.
a). Scientific name: Dermatophagoides pteronyssimis
b). Common name: House Dust Mite
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: parasitic: The relationship between the dust mites and myself is parasitic, because I have an allergic reaction to dust, which makes my body respond with sneezing, coughing, and itchy eyes. I do not receive any benefits from this kind of reaction, but the dust mites are able to have a new home of my internal body.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because it is everywhere in my house! It seems like this species thrives off of clutter, which I have a lot of.
6.
a). Scientific name: Sodium tallowate
b). Common name: Rendered beef fat that aids in creation of soap scum
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: mutualism: The relationship between the soap scum and me is mutualistic, in regards to the species of cows. This relationship allows for this species to be produced at a higher rate than normal and allows for the skin to thoroughly clean. Unfortunately, this species has undergone a lot of unnecessary torture and death from factory farms and slaughterhouses to produce the ingredient of beef fat and other things.
d). Yes, I do think that species is domesticated, because it is a major animal of livestock production. They allow for food and an ingredient in soap that created the soap scum in my bathtub.
7.
a). Scientific name: Helix aspersa Muller
b). Common name: Garden Snail
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: commensal: The relationship between the Garden Snail and me is commensal, because it was benefiting from the previous rainfall in my backyard, while I just observed it from afar.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because it thrives off of gardens, hence the name “garden snail.”
8.
a). Scientific name: unknown
b). Common name: Lizard in backyard
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: commensal: The relationship between the lizard and me is commensal, because it benefits from my backyard as I just observed from afar. I was actually really surprised to see this lizard, because it appeared out of nowhere as I was walking by my pond. It definitely had some interesting physical characteristics, but the species of what kind of lizard it is I do not know.
d). No, I do not think this species is domesticated, because I rarely see this type of lizard around and I could not even find a name for it underneath Arizona lizards. It definitely is more of a “wild” species.
9.
a). Scientific name: Ulva australis
b). Common name: Algae
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: commensal: The relationship between the algae and me is commensal, because its survival benefits from the birdbath in my backyard, but does not impose any harm upon myself (unless it had any harmful bacteria within it and I ingested it).
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because it is “all the rage” in the health food area and is everywhere in health food markets.
10.
a). Scientific name: Basidiomycetes
b). Common name: Lawn Mushroom
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: commensal: The relationship between the Lawn Mushroom and me is commensal, because it benefits from the ground of my backyard for reproduction and survival, while I just observed. I could potentially use it for food though, but I would not dare, because I do not have the knowledge of whether it is edible or not.
d). No, I do not think this species is domesticated, because it can be hunted within its own environment and possibly used for food by humans or other animals.
11.
a). Scientific name: Opuntia
b). Common name: Prickly Pear Cactus
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: commensal: The relationship between the prickly pear cactus and me is commensal, because it is able survive within the remnants of my backyard, while I just observed its placement. But, I can use its prickly pear as a source of food or, I could have the possibility of being harmed due to its needle-like stickers.
d). No, I do not think this species is domesticated, because it is a native plant of the Arizona desert and eating the prickly pears is not very common.
12.
a). Scientific name: Solenopsis invicta Buren
b). Common name: Red Fire Ant
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: mutualism: commensal: The relationship between the red fire ants and myself is commensal, because they are able to use the environment of my backyard for their home and food source, while I just observed their actions. They do have a nasty bite though and could cause harm to be if they felt I was causing harm to them.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because they thrive off of human food and they provide some benefits to humans by dragging of decaying matter of insects and animals.
13.
a). Scientific name: Carassius auratus
b). Common name: Goldfish
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: symbiotic: The relationship between the goldfish and myself is symbiotic, they benefit from an adequate shelter of my backyard pond and on-hand food. And, I have the responsibility to care for them and view them for a calming means of relaxation.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because they are widely used as household pets.
14.
a). Scientific name: Felis catus
b). Common name: Cat
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: symbiotic: The relationship between my cat, Monte, and myself is symbiotic, because we both reap benefits from one another. Monte is able to have a safe home, a plentiful source of food and water, and a loving family. And, Monte provides my home with protection from unknown animals (hissing and clawing the life out of them), capturing of insects in the house, and good company.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because they are widely used as household pets.

15.
a). Scientific name: Shigella flexneri
b). Common name: bacteria in gastrointestinal tract
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: parasitic: The relationship between the bacteria and myself was parasitic, because it was located within my gastrointestinal tract, causing adverse reactions of diarrhea. It was definitely benefiting from my body’s interior, where I was in pain and distress.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because it is studied within laboratory settings, allowing for a safe environment for plentiful reproduction.

16.
a) Scientific name: Coleoptera
b) Common name: Water Scavenger Beetle
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: commensal: The relationship between the water scavenger beetle and me is commensal, because it is provided a safe environment of the pond in my backyard, while I just observed.
d). No, I do not think this species is domesticated, because I tend to see them more in the creeks and riverbeds in the forests, rather than in my daughter’s homemade puddles.
17.
a). Scientific name: Corgnebacterium tuberculostearicum
b). Common name: bacteria on forearm killed by anti-bacterial soap
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: parasitic: The relationship between the bacteria and myself is parasitic, because the bacteria benefits from the skin on my forearm as a safe habitat, where I run the potential of eventually getting the common cold. But, I did kill it by using antibacterial soap, so then the positions in the relationship switch.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because it is studied within the laboratory setting, allowing for the species to reproduce at a greater rate within a safe setting.
18.
a) Scientific name: Streptococcus mutans
b). Common name: bacteria that cause tooth decay in mouth
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: parasitic: The relationship between the bacteria in mouth and myself is parasitic, because the bacteria has created three cavities in my teeth that need to be taken care of by my dentist. This is beneficial for the bacteria, because it can keep creating the possibility of tooth decay in my weaker areas in my teeth, but they can be killed of by toothpaste. And, I obviously do not benefit, because if it is not taken care of, I could cause more damage.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because it is studied within the laboratory setting, allowing for the species to reproduce at a greater rate within a safe setting.
19.
a). Scientific name: Lactobacillus acidophilus
b). Common name: Active culture in yogurt
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: symbiotic: The relationship between the active culture in yogurt and myself is symbiotic, because we both benefit. The active culture in the yogurt is ingested and is provided a perfect environment to promote its purpose and growth. And, I am allowed the benefit of building intestinal flora from the active culture (within my body) that aids my health in the present and future.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because it is used in food and is also studied in a laboratory setting.
20.
a) Scientific name: Turdus migratorius
b). Common name: Robin Red-Breast
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: commensal: The relationship between the robin and myself is commensal, because the robin benefits from the environment of my backyard, while I am left unharmed and am just observing.
d). No, I do not think this species is domesticated, because it survives in more of a “wild” setting, but does benefit from human care of providing food and water.
21.
a). Scientific name: Corvus crytoleucus
b). Common name: Raven
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: commensal: The relationship between the raven and me is commensal, because the raven benefits from the environment of my backyard, while I just observed and am left unharmed.
d). No, I do not think this species is domesticated, because it survives in more of a “wild” setting, but does benefit from human care of providing food and water.
22.
a). Scientific name: Triticum spp.
b). Common name: wheat in bread
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: mutualism: The relationship between the wheat in bread and myself is mutualistic, because it allows for the species to be produced at a higher rate, but is ingested by other animals, such as myself, for nourishment.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because it is used in agriculture for food and this provides an environment for rapid and safe reproduction.

23. a). Scientific name: Maizzea mays I
b). Common name: corn in cereal
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: mutualism: The relationship between the corn in cereal and me is mutualistic, because it allows for the corn to be reproduced at a higher rate, but is eaten by myself for nourishment.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because it is used for food and this species benefits from that, due to the rapid and safe possibility of reproduction.
24.
a). Scientific name: Avena sativa L.
b). Common name: oats in granola bar
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: mutualism: The relationship between the oats in the granola bar and myself is mutualistic, because it allows for the species to be produced at a higher rate, but is ingested by other animals, such as myself, for nourishment.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because it is used in agriculture for food and this provides an environment for rapid and safe reproduction.
25.
a). Scientific name: Vaccinium sp.
b). Common name: Blueberries
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: mutualism: The relationship between the blueberries and me is mutualistic, because it allows for the species to be produced at a higher rate, but is ingested by myself for adequate nutrients and nourishment.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because it is used in agriculture for food, providing an environment for rapid and safe reproduction.
26.
a). Scientific name: Citrullus vulgarius schard
b). Common name: Watermelon
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: mutualism: The relationship between the watermelon and me is mutualistic, it is ingested by me for adequate nutrients for my body and it allows for the species to be produced at a higher rate.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because it is used in agriculture for food, providing an environment for rapid and safe reproduction.
27.
a). Scientific name: Vitis labrusca
b). Common name: Flame seedless table grapes
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: mutualism: The relationship between the flame seedless table grapes and myself is mutualistic, because they are eaten by myself for adequate nutrients for my body and it allows for the species to be produced at a higher rate.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because it is used in agriculture for food, providing an environment for rapid and safe reproduction.
28.
a). Scientific name: Dernodex folliculorum
b). Common name: Tiny mite in eyelashes
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: commensal: The relationship between the tiny mite in my eyelashes and me is commensal, because it benefits from my body as a place for adequate survival and I am left unharmed. It especially benefits from my eyelashes when I apply mascara to my eyelashes, providing instant food.
d). Yes, I do thin this species is domesticated, because it is studied within a laboratory setting, allowing it to reproduce at a faster rate.
29.
a). Scientific name: Pinus ponderosa
b). Common name: Ponderosa pine
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: symbiotic: The relationship between the ponderosa pine and myself is symbiotic, because we both benefit. This ponderosa pine provides shade, keeping the inside and outside of the house cool, and provides shelter during precipitation. And, the ponderosa pine receives nourishment of regular watering by my continuous care.
d). Yes, I do think this species is domesticated, because it used for several different things such as: furniture, homes, Christmas trees, etc.
30.
a). Scientific name: Gallus gallus
b). Common name: chicken on sandwich
c). Interaction according to ecological principals: mutualism: The relationship between the chicken on my sandwich and me is mutualistic, in regards to the species of chickens. This relationship allows for this species to be produced at a higher rate than normal and allows for my body to be nourished. Unfortunately, this species has undergone a lot of unnecessary torture and death from factory farms and slaughterhouses to produce large amounts of poultry.
d). Yes, I do think that species is domesticated, because it is a major animal of livestock production.

Compendium Review: Unit 4: Chapter 22, 23, & 24

Compendium Review: Unit 4: Chapters 22, 23, & 24 Human Landscapes and Ecology Table of Contents: I. Introduction II. Deep Time Evolutionary History A. What is Deep Time? 1. early Earth 2. Stanley Miller experiments B. Evidence for Historical Fact of Evolution C. Humans are Primates 1. fossil record 2. accident of history 3. comparison Neanderthal & modern human 4. humans today III. Natural Selection A. How Does Evolution Happen? IV. Physical Landscape A. Water Cycle B. Carbon Cycle C. Greenhouse Effect V. Biological Landscape A. Ecology & Human Ecosystem 1. relationships among species B. Development of Agricultural Systems 1. relationship with domesticated species 2. resource use (evolution of domesticate relationships) 3. domestication today i. example: E. coli ii. example: guinea pigs VI. Conclusion

Life consists of many complex components. Some of the complexities of life contain such areas as the structures and functions of the cell, the many organ systems, like the circulatory system and the digestive system, the sensory input and motor output of the nervous system, the body structures of the muscles and bones, and the importance of the reproduction, like the reproductive systems and the development of a new individual. The list can continue on, but the understanding of where life actually started and developed from is also an entire realm of density itself. To understand this perspective it can be examined from the aspects of deep time evolutionary history, natural selection, physical landscape, and biological landscape.

The understanding of evolution of the Earth and life can be viewed upon the feature of deep time evolutionary history. Time to any individual cannot be grasped in its entirety due to the fact that it extends beyond what anyone is capable of understanding. It extends so far beyond days, week, years, and centuries that it resembles the depths of deep space. There is one way that deep time can be understood and that is from the perspective of the toilet paper analogy. A toilet paper roll of 200 sheets can represent the history of life on Earth, starting 4 billion years ago. And, each sheet on that roll represents 20 million years. For example, the first sheet on a 200 sheet toilet paper roll would stand for the formation and solidification of Earth that occurred 4.6 to 4 billion years ago. And, in the development of human existence, that would be inherent in the shreds of the end of the last sheet of toilet paper. In the development of the early Earth, several things are evident.
The early Earth, “…probably formed from aggregates of dust particles and debris” (Mader 468) that was located in deep space. Its atmosphere in the past was nothing in comparison of what it is presently. It first contained gases of water, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen that came from the landscape of many volcanoes and was turned into dense clouds of water vapor, due to the extreme temperatures of heat. Then, as the Earth slowly began to cool, the clouds released enormous amounts of rain, producing the body of oceans. This caused the available gases in the air to intermingle with the water of the oceans. In the surrounding environments of the newly developed oceans, energy availability of eruptions from volcanoes and lighting caused the gases in the water to cultivate the small organic molecules of amino acids and nucleotides. Then, the small organic molecules, “…joined to form proteins and nucleic acids, which became incorporated into membrane-bound spheres” (Mader 468). This created an organism that could operate cell metabolism but could not reproduce, called the protocell. The protocell survived by ingesting preformed food and the process of fermentation. Eventually over the many years of deep time, the protocell was able to acquire genes of DNA, enzymatic proteins, and reproduce, creating the true cell. The true cell is what exists today. This information was developed from existing rocks that were found around the world that date back to at least 3.8 billion years ago and from the Stanley Miller Experiments.
The Stanley Miller Experiments were first performed in 1953. In the experiment, a mixture of gases that were similar to the early Earth’s atmosphere was placed within a closed system of heat and electric sparks. First, the gases were heated and then traveled throughout the contraption, where it reached an electrode creating the spark. Then, it was diffused through a condenser, where the hot water was released and the cool water was contained. After it cooled, Stanley Miller found the small organic molecules that were also believed to have developed in the early Earth. In accordance with the development of the first true cells, comes the development of evolution.
Figure 1: The Stanley Miller Experiment

Evolution is, “…the process by which a species changes through time” (Mader 470). And, there are several pieces of evidence that attribute to the historical fact of evolution. The first piece of evidence is the fossil record. The fossil record is the history of life that is found from fossils in rocks, bone, shale, tree resin, worm casts, preserved droppings, and footprints. And, most of the fossils that are found are located within sedimentary rocks that are housed within sequences of layers, called a strata. It is within the ancient sedimentary rock that the species that are found are not species that are alive today. This shows that life has created a long-term change in biological communities, from particular fossils called transitional fossils. The transitional fossils have characteristics that provide the information of who is related to whom and how evolution happened. It can be found within the developments of the unicellular prokaryotes to multicultural eukaryotes, to the fish, plants to flowering plants, amphibians to reptiles, reptiles to dinosaurs, and dinosaurs to birds, mammals, and humans. The second piece of evidence is anatomical similarities. In vertebrates, the forelimbs are used for actions of swinging from tree branches, climbing, running, swimming, and flight in accordance with related species. Although, differing actions in vertebrates occur, all of the forelimbs have the exact sets of bones that are also organized the exact same. This shows that the layout for the forelimb belonged to a common ancestor that was modified in the proceedings of each vertebrate’s course of evolution. Also, there are embryonic characteristics that are also shared amongst vertebrates. During some point of embryonic development, “…all vertebrates have a postnatal tail and exhibit paired pharyngeal pouches” (Mader 473). This shows that fishes must have been inherited to groups of other vertebrates. And, the third piece of evidence is the shared biochemical and genetic features. All living organisms have within them the same basic biochemical molecules such as, DNA, ATP, and enzymes. And, the use of the DNA sequences and the 20 amino acids in proteins are also used within all organisms. This shows that the relatedness within organisms must of came from common descent. The historical facts of evolution can also be applied to the vertebrates called humans.
The evolution of humans can be shared with the closest living relatives of monkeys and apes. Therefore, humans are primates. Human’s evolutionary history can be based upon the working hypothesis of the evolutionary tree. And, this tree shows that all primates are assigned to a common ancestor. For example, humans are most recently linked with apes, but are also linked with monkeys (farther into deep time) and lemurs and tarsurs (much farther into deep time). But, the species that are alive today are not the human’s species tangible ancestors; rather they are distant cousins that divulged from a common species 70 million years ago. In order to see the development of the human species (primates), the investigation of the fossil record needs to take place.
The fossil record of primates provides evidence of the closest evolutionary humans today. In the fossil record, events of discovered primates are charted along a series of time and within the different groupings of particular fossils that were found. For example, Homo neandertalensis (Neandertal) is directly linked to the same ancestral line as humans. But, not all the fossils that have been discovered, like Homo habilis (2 million years ago), are in direct lineage of Homo sapiens, or humans. It mainly displays the fact that many different human and human-like varieties lived either separately or together in deep time history that evolved from a mutual antecedent. Today, there is solid verification that the living human species has formed one single species, called homosapiens. And, this is due to the occurrence of accident history creating that one species. In the past, there existed Homo neanderthalis and Homo floresiensis, both linked by DNA and protein analysis that shows lineage relation, but in present day, there is little anatomical and biochemical difference between Homo sapiens. And, humans also interbreed, which did not occur with other species of Homo. In unity with humans and neandertals, there are several areas that relate in comparison.

Figure 2: Fossil record of homo-species from a common ancestor
There are several areas that relate between modern humans and neandertal. One similarity is that, “…neandertals are considered the first early humans to bury their dead intentionally” (student webs.Colorado college.edu/~h_landry/an101102.htm). These intentional buried sites had occurred around 300,000 years ago and consisted of corpses in holes covered with rocks and dirt, were complemented with personal items, and sometimes bared limestone rocks that signified gravestones. This provides evidence that the neandertals had an emotional connection with death and the probability of the belief in an afterlife. Another similarity is cultural practices. These practices consisted of living within caves or homes that were built out in the open, the use of tools to hunt and for food preparation, and fire control to cook and keep themselves warm. But today, humans dominate the planet and are present within most landscapes. Along with the development of the human species, the history of evolution also occurs by the process of natural selection.
Figure 3: Comparison of neandertal & modern human skulls

Natural selection is, “…the process by which favorable traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms, and unfavorable traits…are less common” (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection). The development of biological evolution, which was founded by Charles Darwin, was provided the contribution of natural selection. And this is how the process of evolution occurs over deep time. There are three elements that make the process of natural selection. The first is variation. Variation allows each member of a particular species to have physical characteristics that contrast. Then, these different physical traits are passed on from generation to generation by means of inheritance. The second is competition for limited resources. Due to the limited availability of resources within an environment, individuals are no longer liable to producing many descendants. Instead, the number of reproduction in populations stays the same, because the competition for means of survival creates an unequal amount of descendants in a particular species. And, the third is adaptation. In terms of natural selection, the species that have traits that are more favorable in a given environment tend to capture more resources and are able to reproduce, passing on the favorable traits. Then, over time, the environment chooses the favorable traits that were able to adapt much easier, creating following generations that are modified for the given environmental standards. For example, the animal species of giraffes all started with differences in neck length. As competition for resources increased, the giraffes that had the longer necks were able to get the limited resources that were available and were able to produce more offspring. And because of the process of natural selection, most species of giraffes have the characteristics of long necks. Along with the evolution of species, the evolution of the Earth also took on several characteristics.

As the Earth evolved from the early Earth to present day, it created several characteristics of its physical landscape. They are the water cycle and the carbon cycle. The water cycle is a process that contains six steps. The first step involves the procedures of water evaporating and water turning into condensation. For example, the sun causes, “…freshwater to evaporate from seawater, and the salts are left behind” (Mader 499). Then, condensation takes place as it creates clouds within the atmosphere. The second step involves the event of precipitation. For example, as the condensed freshwater has finished rising into the environment, rain, snow, sleet, hail, or fog falls over the land and oceans. And, in the third step, the evaporation of water also takes place from the land and plants. In step four, the precipitation that was delivered to the land is enclosed inside lakes, ponds, streams, rivers, and groundwater. It is from the actions of gravity, due to the land being above sea level, that the fallen precipitation is eventually delivered back to the ocean. This process happens in step five of the water cycle, which is called runoff. Also in step five, water that does not runoff saturates the earth by means of sinking into the ground. And the sixth step involves aquifers. The water that did sink into the ground can also be located within rock layers that release the water and deliver it via wells and springs. These rock layers can also be refilled when continuing precipitation exists. This is the main role of aquifers that are located within the Earth. Unfortunately, humans have had effects on the water cycle’s normal processes. For example, instead of the creation of water buildup in aquifers, human activities have withdrawn the available water within them; humans have cleared the land’s landscape, preventing precipitation to sink into the ground and increasing the process of runoff; and, humans have added pollutants to water that has damaged the water’s natural methods of decontamination. Another physical characteristic of the Earth is the carbon cycle.
Figure 4: The processes of the water cycle.

The carbon cycle is a process that contains six steps. The first step involves plants and their chemical process of photosynthesis. For example, carbon dioxide that is emitted into the air is taken up by plants. Then, photosynthesis allows for the plants to transform the carbon into needed nutrients. The second step allows for the recycling of carbon to take place. For instance, when organisms breathe out carbon. This form of carbon is delivered back to the environment and is subsequently used by the existing plants. In step three, “…carbon dioxide from the air combines with water to produce bicarbonate ion…” (Mader 500). Then, this substance is used is used by algae and heterotrophs. In accordance with step three, step four follows the process of diffusion, which allows for the bicarbonate (produced in step three) and carbon dioxide in the air to create an equilibrium. The fifth step involves living and dead organisms. For instance, all living and dead organisms are made of carbon. And, this adds to the carbon cycle by means of the amounts of organic carbon within trees and from the decomposition of organisms. And, the sixth step involves fossil fuels. For example, during the course of deep time, the remains of organisms were transformed into coal, oil, and natural gas, which are called fossil fuels. Unfortunately, due to human activities within the carbon cycle, the greenhouse effect is taking place. The increase of carbon that is being released into the atmosphere can be accounted for the human activities of burning fossil fuels and the destruction of forests. This disrupts the natural order of the carbon cycle, making it prone for the buildup of greenhouse gases. They are called greenhouse gases, because the buildup of excess carbon gases creates a process of the passing of low light from the sun through clouds, but not allowing intense heat from the sun to return back to space. Instead, the intense heat is returned back to the Earth, causing a rise in temperature, also known as global warming. Another course of evolution that has occurred on Earth is the development of the biological landscape.
Figure 5: Processes of the greenhouse effect

The biological landscape has provided the development of ecosystems (all organisms, including humans) and agricultural systems. The development of ecosystems has allowed for species, of all types, to live within adaptive communities. These species are able to develop particular relationships due to the process of co-evolution. And, within these communities, there are particular relationships among species that can beneficial, damaging, or neutral for the species involved. There are five different ways that these relationships can occur. The first is symbiotic, where the relationship is beneficial for both species. The second is parasitic, where one species reaps the benefits, usually a parasite, and the other species is harmed, usually the host. The third is commensal, where one speices benefits from the relationship and the other species is left unharmed. The fourth is mutualism, where the relationship is beneficial for both species, but appearance wise, it may seem that one species has the advantage over the other species. It is seen in the long term, that both species actually benefit. And, the last is predation, where the relationship between the species is damaging (the predator is parasitic and the prey is the host), but can also be defined as mutalism. In terms of relationships with the human species, the development of agricultural systems has taken place.
Human relationships with other species has resulted in mutulistic traits, due to evolution of agricultural systems. These developments allowed for the human species and species used in agriuculture to co-evolve into domestication, allowing for these species to take advantage of the process of evolution and producing more descendents. For example, there is a larger prevalence of dogs compared to wolves, horses compared to zebras, and corn compared to teosinthe that are domesticated, because of particular traits that stood out and were taken into consideration by the human population. And, due to the strong relationships with domesticated species, it has caused a basis for food and agriculture, transportation, care and protection, and laboratory study and production. There are also other relationships with the considered “wild” species such as, the creation of game reserves and national parks, household pests, symbiotic microorganism, and parasitic microorganisms. It is from these developed relationships within agricultural systems that the dependency of resource use is apparent.
In accordance with evolution, the survival and value of the human species greatly depends on the domesticated relationships. And, it is important that these relationships continue. In the past, over the history of deep time, large mammals have been known to become extinct, but this can possibly change if the human species conscious spirits can uphold positive relationships with species, allowing for domesicatin to become a part of the Earth’s natural form of progression. Although the processes of domestication in the past allowed for the human species to recognize other species, the domestication processes that have occurred in present day are very different.
Domestication today have developed around laboratories and survival indoors. For example, within the environment of the laboratory, the domestication of E. coli has become very evident. The reason why the human species likes the E. coli species is due to four things. First, E. coli is a very adaptable species and can reproduce under a wide variation of laboratory environments. Second, E. coli is very easy to visualize particular processes that are occurring within the species. Third, the genes and proteins of this species are very easy to access by the human species and manipulate within laboratory settings. And lastly, the internal nucleuses of the E. coli species can be easily found and altered. The E. coli species also tends to like the human species, because of several reasons. One point is the fact that humans provide a safe environment, such as the lab, for E. coli to reproduce successfully. And, the human species provides new virulent strains of E. coli assessable to the original species, allowing it to build more strength and power. But unfortunately, the manipulations of the E. coli species has developed anti-biotic resistant species of E. coli, which is detrimental to the environments outside the laboratory. Another example is the domestication of the guinea pig. The guinea pig was originally a “wild” speices within high mountain regions, but was discovered by the human species by means of their rapid reproduction rate. This caused the domestication of the guinea pig by ways of livestock, laboratory animals, and pets. Overall, domestication today has provided some open doors and some roadblocks in terms of evolutionary relationships.

Life consists of many complex components. But, the understanding of where life actually started and developed from is also an entire realm of density itself. To understand this perspective it can be examined from the aspects of deep time evolutionary history, natural selection, physical landscape, and biological landscape. Deep time evolutionary history contains many facets of development from the early Earth, like the development of macromolecules into the true cell that functions today, historical facts of evolution, like fossil records, anatomical similarities, shared embryonical features, and shared biochemical and genetic features, to the development of humans. The process of natural selection contributes to the progression of evolution by ways of varitation, limitation of resources, and adaptation. The physical landscape of the evolved Earth today, processes the cycles of water and carbon, but both have been altered by human activities and has even created the greenhouse effect. And, the biological landscape of the evolved Earth had allowed for species to create relationships within communities, that has benefited both human species and species used in domestication. The process of evoltuion will keep continuing into the future of deep time that will hopefully will provide positive survival for the Earth and its species.

Sources:
Works:
Human Biology 10e. Mader, Sylvia S.
student webs.Colorado college.edu/~h_landry/an101102.htm
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection
Pictures:
physics.uoregon.edu/.../Chap28/FG28_002.jpg
www.ariadne.no/Ariadne/Essay/Bilder2002/nitte...
anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/images/Neandertal_mo...
upload.wikimedia.org/.../400px-Water_cycle.png
www.world-nuclear.org/.../graphics/ueg1-1.gif

Compendium Review: Unit 4: Chapters 16 & 17

Compendium Review: Unit 4: Chapters 16 & 17

Reproduction
Table of Contents:
I. Introduction
II. Human Life Cycle
A. Events of Human Life Cycle
III. Meiosis: Eggs and Sperm
A. Male Reproductive Organs
1. structure and function
2. process of meiosis
3. vasectomy
B. Female Reproductive Organs
1. structure and function
2. process of meiosis
3. menstrual cycle
C. Birth Control Options
D. Sexually Transmitted Diseases
1. types of STDs
2. Hepatitis
3. other common infections
4. prevention of STDs
IV. Fetal Development and Birth
A. Fertilization and Implantation
B. Early Embryonic Development
1. early weeks
2. from fetus to adult
C. Fetal Development
D. Pregnancy
1. change in female anatomy
E. Birth
1. stages
2. birthing, cultures, children
V. Conclusion

I was shocked when I first realized that I was going to become a parent. Originally, I had not planned to start a family in the fall of 2005, but instead I was going to school full-time and enjoying my early twenties. But, when I look upon the past today, I am so blessed that the choices I had made has given me such a beautiful and amazing spirit. She has shown a new world to me through different eyes, giving the purpose and drive for my life. And, my daughter has made me into such an empowered individual. In accordance with Human Biology, the different processes of reproduction are very important to the continuation of life, not only on a spiritual level but on a biological level as well. There are three major parts of life that contribute to reproduction, which are: the human life cycle, meiosis (eggs and sperm), and fetal development and birth.

In the human life cycle, there are several events that take place. They are: meiosis, fertilization, fetal development, birth, childhood/adolescence, adulthood (meiosis), aging, and death. The process of meiosis is a reduction division of cells, because “…meiosis involves two divisions… (with)…four daughter cells. Each daughter cell has one of each kind of chromosome and, therefore, has as many chromosomes in the parent” (Mader 385). Meiosis allows for the process of fertilization to take place, because it combines the DNA of the male sperm and the female egg that creates a new individual with a complete set of inherited chromosomes. The process of fertilization leads to the growth of a new individual from fetal development. In fetal development, the new life matures within the uterus of the female parent for a time period of nine months until the baby is brought into the world by the occurrence of birth. Birth allows for the uterus to contract and eases the baby into the external environment via the birth canal. Then, the baby grows into childhood/adolescence and adulthood, where development of the brain and other bodily systems continues. Also, in adulthood, the process of meiosis begins to occur in order for the process of reproduction to occur over and over again. As the individual proceeds to mature, the slow process of aging occurs. This causes the changes in the human body that contributes to increase risk of illness, disease, and eventually the occurrence of death. One of the major events of the human life cycle, meiosis, occurs in particular regions within the human body.

The event of meiosis in the human life cycle occurs within the reproductive organs in males and females. The male reproductive system consists of several structures and functions. Some of the reproductive organs of males are: the testes, the epididymides, the vas deferens, the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, the urethra, and the penis. The testes are the primary sex organs, or male gonads, which are perched in pairs inside sacs. This is where the sperm and sex hormones are mainly produced. The epididymides is a, “…tightly coiled duct lying just outside each testis” (Mader 321) and is where the maturation of sperm occurs. After the sperm is fully matured, they leave the epididymides and travel through the vas deferens. The vas deferens is a small tube that passes up into the area of the abdominals and around the bladder. This organ allows for the sperm to be stored for a certain period of time. The vas deferens also empties into an ejaculatory duct that leads to the urethra, which is located at the base of the penis. The urethra is a tubular structure that manages sperm and also permits the passage of urines from the bladder. After the incidence of ejaculation, where the sperm is expelled out of the penis in fluid called semen, the seminal vesicles and prostate gland add particular secretions to the semen fluid. The seminal vesicles are located at the base of the bladder in pairs, that each lead to ducts of the vas deferens. And, the prostate gland, which is donut-like in appearance, is located just below the bladder and surrounds an upper portion of the vas deferens. Lastly, the penis is the, “…male organ of sexual intercourse” (Mader 322) that is shaped as a long shaft with an inflated tip. The semen is ejaculated from the penis from intensity of sexual stimulation. The process of meiosis happens within particular parts of these reproductive organs.
Figure 1: The male reproductive system: testes, epididymides, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra, & penis.

Inside the organ of the testes, there are small compartments that contain tightly curved seminiforous tubules. Inside the walls of the seminiforous tubules, the process of spermatogenesis, which is meiosis in males, takes place. The sperm cells begin with a single producer that divides into the primary spermatocytes that constantly undergo the process of meiosis. After the stage of meiosis is complete, the spermatocytes finally change into sperm. Then, the sperm are collected in the epididymides, where it follows the functions of the different reproductive organs and is eventually ejaculated. But, sperm that is not ejaculated is taken back into the tissue of the testes. The male reproductive organs can also be altered by scientific methods.
A particular process, called vasectomy, allows for the occurrence of sterility of an individual. The method of a vasectomy consists of cutting the vas deferens, so the sperm cannot be combined with the semen that is ejaculated by the penis. The sperm still follow the same process though, but are reabsorbed into the tissue of the testes due to the unnecessary use of them. Along with the male reproductive system, the event of meiosis also occurs in the reproductive system of females.
The female reproductive system consists of several structures and functions. Some of the reproductive organs of females are: the ovaries, the oviducts, the uterus, the cervix, and the vagina. The ovaries are the primary sex organs, or female gonads, that lie in depressions of the upper pelvic cavity in pairs. This is where the eggs and female sex hormones are produced. The oviducts extend from the uterus and lead to the ovaries and are, “…finger-like projections called fimbriae that sweep over the ovaries” (Mader 324). This is where the eggs are controlled after it bursts out of the ovary. And, once the egg is within the oviduct, it is slowly moved towards the uterus by ciliary actions and muscle contraction. The uterus is as muscular organ that is surrounded by a thick wall of muscle. It lies above the urinary bladder and at the top portion, is joined by the oviducts, and at the bottom portion, is joined by the cervix. It is within the uterus that the developing fetus is housed, if an egg is fertilized. And, the cervix, which is located at the end of the uterus and enters into the vagina, is the opening to the uterus. Lastly, the vagina is muscular tube that consists of folds that allows for the facilitation of sexual intercourse, the birth of babies, and the exit of menstrual flow. The vagina also contains external structures that make up the genitals. It consists of the clitoris and the labia majorium. The clitoris is the organ of sexual arousal that extends from the pubic bone and is alike in structure to the penis, which contains a shaft of erectile tissue. And, the labia majorium is a fatty prominence that lies underneath the pubic hair that surrounds the clitoris, urethra, and vaginal opening. The process of meiosis happens within particular parts of these reproductive organs.
Figure 2: The female reproductive system: ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, & vagina.

Inside the organ of the ovaries, there are several follicles that contain oocytes, which are immature of eggs. During the ovarian cycle, a follicle will mature and will allow for the process of oogenesis, which is the process of meiosis in females. A mature follicle will undergo the reduction of cells that result in the haploid daughter cells that contain half their chromosomal number. But, the second phase of meiosis, which creates four daughter cells, can only occur if an egg becomes fertilized by a sperm. The oocyte will not complete the second stage of meiosis if left unfertilized and will die shortly after the follicle bursts and releases it from the ovary and is transported by the oviducts. This causes the uterine cycle, or menstrual cycle.
The menstrual cycle consists of an average time frame of twenty-eight days that contains three phases. The first phase, called menstruation, causes the endometrium (lining of the uterus) to disappear and its blood vessels to rupture. This creates a passing of these tissues out of the vagina in a form of blood that makes it the menstrual period. The menstrual period usually lasts up to five days. The second phase, called the proliferative phase, allows for the endometrium to rebuild from the increase of estrogen hormones by a developing oocyte. This phase occurs after menstruation ends and can last up to day thirteen of the cycle. And, the last phase, called the secretory phase, causes the increase in the hormone progesterone by the developing ovary. This creates the thick, membranous buildup of the endoterinum and the secretion of thick mucous for the receiving of the developing embryo. But, if the egg is not fertilized, the process occurs again. Along with the method of a vasectomy of males, there are other ways to prevent pregnancy.
There are several different birth control options. They consist of: the intrauterine device, the diaphragm and spermicidal jelly, female condom, male condom, implant, injections, vaccines, and oral contraceptive. The intrauterine device is a small piece of structured plastic that is placed within the uterus by a healthcare professional. It alters the overall internal environment of the uterus and the oviducts that lower the chances of fertilization taking place, but if fertilization does happen, the egg cannot implant due to the appearance of the device. The diaphragm is a soft cup that fits over the cervix and is wedged behind the pubic bone (must be fitted by a healthcare professional). Spermicidal jelly is added to its external features to kill any sperm that try to pass the barrier. The female and male condoms are polyurethane and latex sheaths that are either inserted in the vagina (female condom) or placed over an erect penis (male condom). The ring of the female condom fits over the opening of the cervix to prevent any entry of semen and the male condom catches the ejaculated semen within it. An implant uses synthetic female hormones to, “…prevent ovulation by disrupting the ovarian cycle” (Mader 332). They are surgical placed underneath the skin of a woman’s arm and can last as long as three years. Injections consist of synthetic combinations of female hormones that prevent the chances of pregnancy and are applied from a few weeks to every three months. Vaccines, which are newly developed, are intended to immunize women against the hormone needed to allow for implantation of an embryo. And, oral contraceptives are medications that are taken to reduce the chance of pregnancy. Unfortunately, the occurrence of sexually transmitted diseases hinders the practicality of safe sexual intercourse.
Sexually transmitted diseases consist of two types of diseases. One type is the viral diseases that cannot be treated with antibiotics. Some viral diseases consist of HIV infections, genital warts, genital herpes, and hepatitis. Another type is the bacterial diseases that can be treated with antibiotics, but can leave debilitating effects on the body later in life. Some bacterial diseases are Chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis. All of these sexually transmitted diseases, whether they are viral or bacterial, have very negative side effects to the human body, especially the STD hepatitis.
The sexually transmitted disease, hepatitis, is an infection of the liver that can, “…lead to liver failure, liver cancer, and death” (Mader 337). And, there are six different types of hepatitis such as, A, B, C, D, E, and G. The most common form of hepatitis that is transmitted by sexual contact and blood is hepatitis B. And unfortunately, hepatitis B, “…persists for decades after patients’ recovery from acute viral hepatitis despite active maintenance of (T-cells)” (www.nature.com/nm/wilma/v2n10.861158388.html).

Figure 3: Visual of the sexually transmitted disease Hepatitis B

There are also other common infections of the reproductive tract.
There are three types of infections that can also occur within the reproductive tract. The first is bacterial vaginosis that is caused by disruption of healthy bacteria in the vagina. This leads to overgrowth of certain bacteria and causes 50% of vaginitis in American women. The second is trichomoniasis that is caused by a flagellated protozoan. This leads to symptoms of a frothy discharge, itching, and foul smell. Also, this infection is another common cause of vaginitis. And, the last is candidiasis that is caused by overgrowth of yeast in the vagina. This leads to symptoms of red, inflamed, and itchy external genitalia and a white, curdy discharge. Also, women are prone to this infection from the use of birth control and antibiotics. Along with birth control options, there are also options that help protect against sexually transmitted diseases.
There are four major ways that individuals can protect themselves against STDs. The first way is the choice of abstinence. This is the choice of abstaining from sexual intercourse with a partner and is the best way to prevent transmission of diseases sexually. The second way is developing a long-term monogamous relationship. The third way is creating awareness to whether or not a partner uses intravenous drugs. This knowledge is important, because IV users have a higher rate of contracting STDs from sharing needles with other users. And the forth way is practicing safer safe by using condoms, avoiding oral sex, cleanliness of the reproductive tract, and limiting use of drugs or alcohol that reduces inhibitions and logical thinking. Along with meiosis being a major event of the human life cycle, there are also several others that have significance.

Two major events that occur within the reproductive system of females are that of fetal development and birth. The process for which fetal development can occur begins with the process of fertilization and implantation. Fetilization happens in a series of five steps. In the first step, the sperm navigates it way through the egg's exterior, adhering cells. Then, the sperm's external enzyme caseing breaks down the adhering cells and is able to finally fuse with the egg's internal membrane. The third step consists of the sperm's nucleus entering the cytoplasm of the egg and the outside of the egg releases fertilization enzymes. Lastly, the nucleus of the sperm and egg join together into a nuclear envelope.
After fertilization occurs, the cell begins mitosis, which allows for the cells to repeatedly multiply. Then, it passes down the oviduct and into the uterus for implantation. During implantation, the egg becomes a part of the uterine wall for proper future growth. But, an ectopic pregnancy can happen, which the egg implants itself somewhere besides the uterus. When this does happen, emergency surgery must take place in order for the body not to experience internal hemorrhaging. Then the process of embryonic development occurs, if implantation is successful.
Embryonic development happens within the first couple months of pregnancy. The embryo implants itself within the uterian walls and begins developing the embryonic disk, which contains membranes for blood cell formation, the nervous system, all the major body systems, glands of these body systems. These systems are also laid out in fetal germ layers that resemble early fetal form from the future adult body. Also, the amniotic fluid develops, that protects the embryo. After the membranes have fully developed, the actual start of the heart and nervous system appear. Then, towards the end of the second month of gestation, the umbilical cord connects to the placenta, little limbs begin to pop out of the embryo, sense organs are more defined, and the embryo begins to resemble a human being. After the development of the embryo, fetal development occurs.
Figure 4: The stages of embryonic development

Fetal development is the continuing maturation of the forthcoming individual that occurs from month three to month nine. The second trimester, which includes months four, five and six, has many developments in the fetus. For example, the, “…muscles begin to develop and sex organs form…and the child’s spontaneous movements can be observed” (www.wprc.org/parenting/fetal-development/). Also, the fetus learns how to grasp, seat glands develop, and the skin changes from a transparent appearance to an opaque appearance. The third trimester, which includes months seven, eight, and nine, has many more developments in the fetus. For example, the baby learns to use its lungs by inhaling and exhaling and the eyes are completely formed. At the end of gestation, which is the end of the third trimester, development is complete and the fetus is ready to live outside the female’s uterus. Pregnancy for females also creates new developments for internal and external anatomy.
There are several changes that happen to female anatomy. The internal organs of the bladder, rectum, and stomach are pushed superiorly and compressed. This leads to changes in urination, defecation, and eating patterns. For example, pregnant women tend to urinate more often, have repeated occurrences of constipation, and eat more often, but ingest smaller amounts of food at each meal. The immune system within the female body also changes. The immune response creates an environment of protection for the fetus by changes in appetite. This possibly creates avoidance of poisons in foods that can harm the baby.

Figure 5: The changes in female anatomy due to pregnancy

The external anatomy of a pregnant woman also changes. The posture of an individual changes due to anterior weight. This allows for appropriate compensation for the developing baby and the pregnant woman. Also, the breasts enlarge from the production of early milk, called colostrum. After fetal development is complete, then the process of birth occurs.
Another major event of the human life cycle is birth. At a biological standpoint, birth occurs in three stages. In the first stage of labor (process of birth), contractions of the uterus occur. These contractions allow for the cervix to dialate and disappear, which is called effacement. And, with continuing contractions, the baby head, “…acts as a wedge for cervical dilation” (Mader 369). Once the cervix has completely dilated, the second stage occurs. In the second stage of labor, the desire to push the baby through the birth canal is very great, due to the repetitive contractions. And, as the head of the baby continues to slowly enter the birth canal, the urge to push is even greater. Once the pushing stage has been completed, the head of the baby is delivered, along with the helping guide (by the physician or midwife) of the shoulders, and the rest of the baby. Generally, once the baby is breathing effectively, the umbilical chord that connected the baby to the placenta is cut. Once the baby is delivered, the third stage occurs. In the third stage of birth, the placenta is delivered several minutes after the baby is born. The uterus begins to contract again and the placenta is delivered through the vagina. As soon as this happens, the process of birth is finished. In accordance with the process of birth, there are several different approaches to birthing and child-raising.
There are many different approaches to the birthing process. Some processes include, natural birth, hospital birth, cesarean birth, etc. In my personal experiences with birth, I chose to have my daughter naturally in the environment of my home with a licensed midwife. During my labor, I used several different techniques like breathing, relaxation, massage, swaying, low-lighting, silence, walking, squatting, and warm water. I had originally planned to have a water birth, but I became so relaxed that the warm water was slowing down my contractions! So, I ended up giving birth to my daughter on our bed. Once she was born, she was immediately placed on my bare chest and the umbilical chord was not cut until it stopped pulsing, which my husband took the liberty of doing. Also, my mother and mother-in-law were also there to provide me with support during labor and birth. My birth story was an incredible experience! I was so lucky to able to experience my labor and birth in the most natural ways possible (in the United States). I was able to appreciate the birth of my daughter in an entire new realm, because I was able to push through whatever pain I was experiencing during labor and birth. She gave me power, strength, determination, spiritual enlightenment, and absolute love. There are also many different approaches to child-raising that leads to human populations and evolution.

I was shocked when I first realized that I was going to become a parent, but, when I look upon the past today, I am so blessed that the choices I had made has given me such a beautiful and amazing spirit. She has shown a new world to me through different eyes, giving the purpose and drive for my life. And, my daughter has made me into such an empowered individual. In accordance with Human Biology, the different processes of reproduction are very important to the continuation of life, not only on a spiritual level but on a biological level as well. There are three major parts of life that contribute to reproduction, which are: the human life cycle, meiosis (eggs and sperm), and fetal development and birth. The human life cycle consists of: meiosis, fertilization, fetal development, birth, childhood/adolescence, adulthood (meiosis), aging, and death. The event of meiosis happens within the reproductive systems of both males and females, called spermatogenesis and oogenesis. But, it only occurs in females if an egg is fertilized by a sperm, and if that does not occur, a normal menstrual cycle will take place. There are several birth control options to choose from such as: vasectomy, intrauterine devices, diaphragm, condoms, oral contraceptives, implants, and vaccines. And unfortunately, sexual intercourse can lead to sexually transmitted diseases like, hepatitis B, if individuals do not take proper prevention of STDs. The events of fetal development and birth begin with fertilization of an egg by a sperm that leads to implantation and early embryonic development. Then, fetal development occurs from month three to month nine, creating important internal and external features within the fetus and changing the internal and external anatomy of the pregnant female. The process of birth occurs after fetal development is complete in three stages. And, there are many different approaches to birthing and child-raising. In the end, it affects the outcomes of populations and their evolutions.

Sources:
Works:
Human Biology, 10e. Mader, Sylvia S.
www.wprc.org/parenting/fetal-development/
www.nature.com/nm/wilma/v2n10.861158388.html
Pictures:
health.yahoo.com/.../r7_malerepro.jpg
medpics.findlaw.com/imagescooked/7343W.jpg
www.cs.nyu.edu/els4/prevwk/prev/HepatitisB.jpg
embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/.../Images/Cst800.jpg
www.waukeshamemorial.org/.../anatomy.gif

Human Population Demographics Lab

Human Population Demographics:

1.What was your high fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?The high fertility rate country that I chose to compare with the world was Somalia, which is located within the continent of Africa.The fertility rate for this country was very high with 7.11 children.

Figure 1: Population of the world compared to that of Somalia. Fertility rate was 7.11 children.

2. What was your low fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?The low fertility rate country that I chose to compare with the world was South Korea, which is located within the continent of Asia. The fertility rate for this country was very low with 1.70 children.

Figure 2: Population of the world compared to that of South Korea. Fertility rate was 1.70 children.

3. The initial demographic "shape" of your high fertility rate country should have been a pyramid, with high population in young age groups. Explain why high fertility rate results in a high percentage of young people in the population. How does this affect future population growth?The high fertility rates that were present in Somalia, and other areas of the world, had shown that the population contained a high percentage of young people. This occurs due to the increase of more women entering the reproductive age range than older women leaving them. And, this also happens due to the majority of people living in poverty. This will effect future population growth by the continuance of younger people entering reproductive stages that will keep the growth of population at an increasing level, causing scarcity in water, loss of biodiversity, and addition of more pollution to the Earth.

4. Your low fertility rate country might have had a more oval-shaped curve with high population in middle age groups. This is especially exaggerated if the fertility rate is below 2.00. Explain why low fertility rate leads to lots of middle-aged people.The low fertility rates that were present in South Korea, and other areas of the world, had shown that the population contained a higher percentage of middle-aged people. This occurs due to the decline of death rate that was affected by the development of modern medicine, public health, and socioeconomic conditions.

5. Write ten adjectives or descriptive phrases for what you might expect life, people's attitudes, conditions on the streets, etc. will be like in each of those situations. Imagine a situation with lots of middle-aged and older people in the population and write ten quick "brain-storm" descriptors for you think it would be like (Prescott, Arizona?). Then do the same for a situation with lots of children in the population.
Ten adjectives for what life, people’s attitudes, and conditions on the streets would be like in Prescott, Arizona if there were a lot of middle-aged/older people in the population:
1. unexciting
2. stagnant
3. pollution would decrease
4. deserted
5. repetitive
6. slow pace
7. use of resources wouldn’t be in such high demand
8. lack of variety, such as activities to do
9. oss of childlike feelings
10. a lot of naps
Ten adjectives for what life, people’s attitudes, and conditions on the streets would be like in Prescott, Arizona if there were a lot of children in the population:
1. stimulating
2. inhabited
3. gathering of different backgrounds
4. use of resources would be in higher demand
5. development of new ideas
6. fast pace
7. interactive
8. more crime
9. loss of biodiversity
10. a lot of naps

Sources:
simon.cs.vt.edu/geosim/IntlPop/IntlPop.html

Fetal Development Lab

List of Ten Significant Events during Fetal Development:

1. Week 13 (Beginning of three months pregnant): The bag of water that surrounds the baby cushions it from external movements, keeps the baby in constant temperature, and allows for the baby to apply free movement of head, limbs, and rest of body. The heartbeat can also be heard at this time. I believe that this time of thirteen weeks is significant, because the baby is fully protected from the outside world and the “idea” of pregnancy becomes a reality for the parents when the heartbeat is heard for the first time.
Picture of week 13
2. Week 16 (End of three months pregnant): The baby is completely formed at this time and stages after this is spent in the uterus of growing and maturing until it reaches the stage of development where the baby can survive on its own. Also, the mother of the baby can begin to feel slight flutters of the movement of the baby. I believe that this time of sixteen weeks is significant, because the process of formation of all the vital internal organs, internal body systems, and exterior body systems are finished in development and the sensation of the baby moving is a beautiful feeling (for moms).
Picture of week 16
3. Week 18 (Beginning of four months pregnant): The baby begins testing its reflexes by bouncing and kicking around in the uterus. And, the baby is also grasping and sucking its fingers, toes, and other. Also, the production of heat-producing brown fat also forms that helps keep the baby warm in cold environments. I believe that this time of eighteen weeks is significant, because the baby becomes aware of its limbs puts them into action and the development of brown fat is important for temperature protection.
4. Week 20 (End of four months pregnant): Sebum from sebaceous glands mixes with skin cells and forms vernix, which is a protective coating that clings to the fine fetal hair on the baby’s skin. Also, the baby’s brain grows rapidly and the spine, ribs, and long bones of arms and legs have hardened into bone. I believe that this time of twenty weeks is significant, because skin protectant is developed and helps protect the baby within the uterus and the developing bones in the baby are now hardening.
Picture of week 20
5. Week 24 (End of five months pregnant): The opening of the nostrils allows for the baby to make periodic muscular movements that prepares to intake air into the lungs at birth, which stimulates lung development. And, air sacks within the lungs begin to develop. The sensory systems within the baby are now making connections with the brain. I believe that this time of twenty-four weeks is significant, because it allows for the major developments of the lungs and how the baby can utilize them. And, the connections from the senses to the brain will be very useful after birth.
6. Week 27 (Midway of six months pregnant): Around this time, the baby’s eyelids become unfused and open for the first time. Also, the baby’s brain can now direct constant breathing and body temperature. I believe that this time of twenty-seven weeks is significant, because the motor output of opening the eyes is finally processed and the baby begins to gain more control of its internal systems.
Picture of week 27
7. Week 31 (Beginning of seven months pregnant): The process of rapid brain growth occurs again, increasing the baby’s head circumference greatly. The placenta has reached maximum of amniotic content, but is still provided with plenty of oxygen. I believe that this time of thirty-one weeks is significant, because the rapid growth rate allows for the baby’s brain and body to change and the baby is resting up against the uterus, instead of floating around, which allows for parents and child to bond in a new way.
8. Week 36 (Midway of eight months pregnant): During this time, the baby is almost fully mature and may drop down into the pelvis for birth. Also, the baby’s intestines are accumulating waste products, called meconium, from the liver, pancreas, and gall bladder. I believe that this time of thirty-six weeks is significant, because the baby is preparing for birth by dropping into the pelvis and gathering wastes that will be expelled after birth.
Picture of week 31
9. Week 38 (Beginning of nine months pregnant): The structure of the baby’s skull creates spaces that will allow for molding of the head as the baby passes through the birth canal. Also, the baby’s chest and abdomen become more dominant, especially the abdomen due to the liver’s production of new blood cells. I believe that this time of thirty-eight weeks is significant, because the skull’s structure allows for the head to pass smoothly through the birth canal and doesn’t damage the baby’s brain. And, the liver is rapidly producing blood cells that are important for the baby’s continuing development.
10. Week 40 (End of nine months pregnant): The baby is considered fully developed and can be born healthy at this time. I believe that this time of forty weeks is significant, because it is the time when the baby is finally ready to greet the outside world, everything is fully developed, and the parents finally get to see and love their new found love.

Sources:
Pictures:
www.babycenter.com/fetaldevelopment
Works:
Human Biology 10e. Mader, Sylvia S.
The Complete Book of Pregnancy & Childbirth. Kitzinger, Shelia
The Pregnancy Journal. Harris, Christine