Lab Project #2: Exercise Physiology

The circulatory system is a vast environment containing several components. It contains arteries, capillaries, and veins, which all assist in the process of transporting blood to and from the heart and lungs. But, the capillaries is the main site where red blood cells exchange oxygen-rich blood with the oxygen-poor blood from the cells. This process is vey vital to the survival of every cell within the body, because the use of oxygen is needed in the processes of cell metabolism and cellular respiration. Cell metabolism occurs within the mitochondria of the cell, where nutrients that are digested from the body are used to make quick energy, glucose, for the cells. This is also a part of cellular respiration. Cellular respiration consists of the cycles of glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. It is within each of these cycles that oxygen is used to breakdown glucose and convert it into ATP. In accordance with the complexity and processes of the circulatory system and the cells, this lab project, called Exercise Physiology, was performed by myself in order to measure different body metabolic factors such as pulse, respiration rate, and blood pressure.

In the lab, Exercise Physiology, I measured the metabolic rates of pulse, respiration rate, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure four different ways. First, I measured a baseline reading for each metabolic rate by staying at rest for ten minutes. I was able to use this baseline as a comparison of my normal blood pressure to that of the three activities I performed. Then, I performed my first activity of Tae Bo for five minutes and measured each metabolic rate after that performance. Third, I executed the activity of twenty push-ups, then measuring the different rates for that action. Lastly, I performed the activity of jogging in place for two minutes and calculated the rates for that occurrence.

Before I performed this lab, I decided upon a hypothesis. I hypothesized that after I performed each activity, the pulse, respiration rate, systolic, and diastolic blood pressure would all increase in comparison to my baseline rates.

The procedure I followed for the Exercise Physiology Lab is:

1. Sat and rested for ten minutes

2. Baseline blood pressure was measured by my husband with a bloodpressure cuff and stethiscope.

3. Then, measured my baseline pulse by placing my fingers on my cartoid artery and counting each beat for 30 seconds. I multiplied the number I recieved by two to find the result for one minute.

4. And, measured my baseline respiration rate by counting each breath for fifteen seconds and multiplying the result I received by four to equal one minute.

5. I repeated steps one through four, five other times.
6. Then, I performed my first activity of Tae Bo, which I did for five minutes.
7. My husband measured by blood pressure again.

8. Then, I measured my pulse rate and respiration rate.

9. I performed Tae Bo two other times and measured each rate afterwards.

10. Then, I performed my second activity, twenty pushups.

11. Measured my blood pressure, pulse rate, and respiration rate.

12. I peformed twenty pushups two other times and measured each rate afterwards.

13. Then, I performed my third activity of running in place for two minutes.

14. Measured my blood pressure, pulse rate, and respiration rate.

15. I performed running in place two other times and measured each afterwards.

16. Then, I found the average for my baseline rate, activity one, two, and three of each metabolic rate.

This is my metabolic data table where I recored my results for each metabolic rate and found the averages for each.

Figure 1: This is the activity of resting for ten minutes. I did this to find out what my baseline pulse rate, respiration rate, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure would be. This was performed four other times.


Figure 2: This is where my husband measured my systolic and diastolic blood pressure by using the blood pressure cuff and stethiscope. I had this done for baseline rate and activities one, two, and three.

Figure 3: This is the first activity of Tae Bo. I performed this for five minutes. Then, I continued with measuring my pulse rate, respiration rate, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure. I performed this activity two other times.

Figure 4: This is the second activity of twenty push-ups. Then, I continued with the measurements of each metabolic rate. I performed this activity two other times.

Figure 5: This is the third activity of running in place for two minutes. Then, I continued with the measurementsof each metabolic rate. I performed this activity two other times.

After I finished the main procedure of the Exercise Physiology Lab, I gathered my data and placed it into four bar graphs. I was able to compare the results I had received. The first graph consists of the comparison of my average baseline systolic rate with my average systolic rates for activities one, two, and three. I had originally hypothesized that my average systolic rate would increase in relation to my baseline systolic. As it turns out, all three activities did raise my average systolic rate, especially when I performed activity #2 of twenty push-ups. The second graph consists of the comparison of my average diastolic rate with my average diastolic rates for activities one, two, and three. I had hypothesized that my average diastolic rate would increase

in relevance to my baseline diastolic. As it turns out, it did increase when I performed activities two and three, but when I performed activity #1 of Tae Bo, it stayed the same. The third graph consists of the comparison of my average baseline pulse rate with my average pulse rate for activities one, two, and three. I hypothesized that my average pulse rate would increase in relation to my average baseline pulse rate. As it turns out, my average pulse rate did increase for activities two and three, but it decreased when I performed activity #1 of Tae Bo. The fourth graph consists of the comparison of my average baseline respiration rate with my average respiration rate for activities one, two, and Figure 6: Bar graph of average baseline systolic vs. average systolic from activities one, two, and three. three. I originally hypothesized that my average respiration rate would increase in relation to my average baseline respiration. As it turns out, my average respiration rate did increase, especially when I jogged in place for two minutes.

Figure 7: Bar graph of average baseline diastolic vs. average diastolic for activities one, two, and three.

Figure 8: Bar graph of average baseline pulse rate vs. average pulse rate for activities one, two, and three.

Figure 9: Bar graph of average baseline respiration rate vs. average respiration rate for activities one, two, and three.

After I compared the results of my Exercise Physiology Lab, I was concerned as to whether or not there were any problems with my techniques that I performed or if there were any other factors affecting the outcome of the reuslts.

Beginning with the comparison with my average baseline diastolic with my average diastolic after performing the activities. I was surprised to find how close the averages were to my baseline after performing such rigorous activities. But, maybe they would of been higher if I performed the activites for a longer amount of time. Next, I was really surprised to see that my average pulse rate for activity #1, Tae Bo, was lower than my average baseline pulse rate, considering that I was being much more active than resting. Overall, I felt like my experiment results were not that accurate, because my blood pressure seemed really low to what it normally is when it is measured by my primary care physcian. I think the blood pressure cuff that I had used need to be re-callibrated. Also, the times that I had performed each resting activity and exercise activity, I was really tired.

The circulatory system contains arteries, capillaries, and veins that assist in the transport of blood to and from the heart and lungs. The capillaries house most of the exchange of oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood with the cells, in order to carrry out cellular metabolism and respiration properly. The Exercise Physiology Lab that I performed by finding my average baseline pulse rate, respiration rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure and comparing that to different metabolic rates results after performing activities like, Tae Bo, pushups, and jogging, provided some interesting results. Mostly all of the activities I performed had shown that my metabolic rates had increased compared to my average resting rates. But, there were some surprises, for example, my average pulse rate during Tae Bo had decreased and average diastolic rate during the same activity stayed the same. In general, most exercise activities will increase metabollic rates, which in turn will speed up the processes within the circulatory system.

Sources:

Pictures:

Graphs: nces.ed.gov/nceskids/createagraph/default.aspx

Self and Unit Evaluation #2 for Unit 2

REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
The three aspects of the assignments I’ve submitted that I am most proud of are my first compendium review, my blood pressure lab, and my ethical issue paper about what food is. I felt like I provided thorough information in each of these assignments, that I really understood the information researched, and I really enjoyed putting the pictures in the assignments.

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?
The two assignments that I believe could have used some improvement were my second compendium review and my lab project. I felt that in my nutrition compendium review that I was leaving a lot of information out. And, I felt like I did not put enough time into the metabolic rates lab project.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
I believe that my overall grade for this unit should at least be an A. Although, I felt like did not put enough time or effort into a couple of my assignments, I did try to provide exemplary work.

4. How could I perform better in the next unit?
I can perform better in the next unit by putting in more time to the lab project.


REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")

At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
The moment that I felt most engaged with the course was during the blood pressure and nutrition labs. I always really enjoy doing the labs, because it puts the information that is being researched, into a hands-on learning experience. It was interesting when I performed the blood pressure experiment to see if gender and age effected blood pressure and what the outcomes would be. And, it was interesting to see exactly how much of what I was getting from the foods I was eating.

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
The moment that I felt most distanced from the course was when I first started reading about the circulatory system. At first, the information was just going right over my head, because, visually, I couldn’t understand what was happening with that system.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that I find most affirming and helpful?
The action that I took during this unit that I found most affirming and helpful was viewing pictures on the textbook’s Website. I was really confused about how the cardiovascular system worked, so I checked out some visual learning materials on the Internet to see how the circulatory system worked in accordance with the heart and the rest of the body. After that, I had a better understanding of how it occurred.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?
During this unit, I did not find any action that was puzzling or confusing.

What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
The thing that surprised me the most about this unit were the given articles for the ethical issue essay. Before I had read any of the articles, I was pretty consumed by the commercialization of healthy claims on foods that were actually just processed junk. But, after I read the articles that were provided, I learned a lot about the “nutritionism” babble and different ways that I could actually eat healthier.

Ethical Issue Paper #2: What is Food?

To Know Thy Food

As each week comes to an end, the project of grocery shopping is usually the next endeavor that my family and I partake upon for the weekend. Before the trip begins, each one of us decides what the coming week will hold for our food choices. Lately, our decisions have amounted to the quick fix of packaged meals. Instinctively, I want to reach for the recipe books and whip out amazingly hearty breakfasts, lunches, and dinners from my fantasy garden. But, when it comes to the bottom line, I have been conditioned to follow the grocery store aisles of the frozen food section, instead of the radiating plethora of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. So, why is it that food has become such a burden for not only my family, but everywhere in the United States? Maybe, it is the fact that many of us do not know what food is anymore. And, as the consequences have shown, the American population is slowly dying from food-related illnesses like heart disease, cancer, stroke, and type II diabetes. Perhaps these problems can be solved by trying to understand exactly what food is. And several people have already done so.

One person who has started a new wave of food thought is Michael Pollan. As a writer for the New York Times, he recently published an article titled “Unhappy Meals” that provides an eye-opening understanding to what food is. It points out that as the American culture eased into the Industrial Revolution, food became a by-product of industry and production, rather than a fulfillment of happiness and health. Then, it led to the field of science, where food was investigated under a microscope to discover whether of not certain parts of food could cause or prevent certain diseases. Today, the grocery store is loaded with new types of food every year that are plastered with the newly, revealed “healthy claims” for long-term health. For example, sugary cereals, like Coco pebbles and Lucky Charms, are screaming about their new whole grain content. The reality of it is that these cereals are nothing but a product of refinement processes of fake ingredients. Food is presented as a colorful reassuring box, but food is actually something that has not followed any factory process. It is a part of the natural processes of the earth. For example, farmer’s markets provide the optimal choices of fresh, whole foods that have been harvested at the peak of nutritional quality. In the end, food is not an object of money and nutritional hype. It is a part of culturally influenced diets like the French and Mediterranean that consist of pure ingredients that were never purposely produced to prolong health, but were enjoyed with spiritual appreciation. Another way of understanding what food is, can be provided from my point of view.

I have come to understand what food is from my life experiences with it. As a child, I was provided with whatever was convenient and quick. I remember always eating processed foods, like sugary cereals, packaged lunchables, Kraft macaroni and cheese, and McDonalds. I consumed what I thought was food, because my mother did not know the difference either and it was widely supported by the mass media. But, as I entered high school, I was given a harsh dose of reality about the foods I was eating. I learned about the large corporations that earned their biggest dollar amount by the easiest means of unjust slaughtering and torturing of factory farm animals. I began to realize that I was eating food that was nothing but products of greed and pain. It was from that moment until five years later that I stopped eating animal products altogether and became vegan. Although, my new life as a vegan seemed innocent, I also became deeply obsessed with the “nutritionism” realm of calorie, fat, and carbohydrate consumption that it led to my struggle with anorexia. It is very scary how easy it is to believe the nutrition babble, like low-carb and low-fat diets. And, it is horrifying how crazy a person can get when food becomes an object rather than a part of health. I definitely lost my sense of what food was, because all I could perseverate on was the nutrition facts. Luckily, I was able to end that phase in my life when I became pregnant with my daughter. As soon as I became aware that I was providing an environment for life, I immediately took a one-eighty. I wanted to make sure that I was providing all the essential nutrients that my child needed. Today, my understanding of what food is resembles that of the many pioneers of organic agriculture. Once I was exposed to the idea of veganism, I never let the beliefs behind it leave my mind. I feel that it is very important to consume whole, organic foods that have not been through factory processes, like inhumane feeding regimens, unjust slaughtering, and the use of antibiotics, herbicides, and pesticides. It is also vital to support the longevity of small farms, because they seem to be the only sources of real, raw foods. I think the reason why poor health is so rampant in the United States is because of the fact that food is made into an object of scrutiny. Instead, food should be viewed holistically and be enjoyed for its pure essence.

The first viewpoint on what food is provides the outlook that the American culture slowly dying of health-related illnesses due to the realm of “nutritionism.” As a population, we have been influenced into consuming foods that are highly processed, but bare reassuring health claims or participation in the new fad diet. It also provides solutions to the dilemma, by eating foods that are culturally-based, homegrown, and homemade, rather than just viewing food as fuel. The second viewpoint on what food is provides personal experience from my life. I have come to learn to appreciate whole, organic foods, from my personal choices of becoming vegan, suffering from an eating disorder, and becoming pregnant with my daughter. Through it all, whole, organic foods have provided me with a sense of spiritual satiation. While the first viewpoint provides facts and guidelines to improving the health of the United States, my viewpoint shows an example of taking that advice into action.

Food has become such a burden in the American culture, because we have lost a sense of what food really is. And, unfortunately, we are reaping the unwanted benefits of health-related disease. There are answers to the paradigm of disconnection that the U.S. follows with food, such as purchasing foods from the farmer’s market, consuming fresh foods, and creating homemade meals. But, each person needs to stop trailing the commercially influenced ways of what food is, like “nutritionism”, and learn to appreciate what the earth provides through its natural processes. I am willing to make the sacrifice of straying from the mainstream and following my intuition about food. And I think our health dilemmas can be solved by making that conscious choice. I hope that in the future, each individual in the United States will stop worrying about every little part that makes up the foods they eat and just enjoy them for what they are.

Sources:
Pictures:
1. www.pioneer.net/.../fast_food_cartoon_6142.gif
2. newstandardnews.net/content/cartoons/00003237.jpg

Compendium Review #2: Chaper 8

Table of Contents: Food and Nutrition I. Introduction II. Overview of Digestion A. Processes of the Digestive Process 1. Ingestion 2. Digestion 3. Movement 4. Absorption 5. Elimination B. Cellular Metabolism and Respiration III. Gastrointestinal Tract A. The Mouth B. The Pharynx and Esophagus C. The Stomach and Small Intestine 1. Stomach 2. Small Intestine a. obesity: type II diabetes and cardiovascular disease D. The Pancreas, Liver, and Gall Bladder E. The Large Intestine IV. Nutrition A. Nutrients 1. Carbohydrates 2. Proteins 3. Lipids 4. Minerals 5. Vitamins a. fat-soluble b. water-soluble B. Nutritious Meals 1. People Decide What to Eat 2. Healthy Diet V. Conclusion

The body can survive for two weeks without any food before it exhausts and fails. And it is during this time that the gastrointestinal tract (digestive system) tries to keep homeostasis within the body, but ends up malfunctioning from lack of specific nutrients. Although this may seem severe, people do not usually make the conscious choice to starve themselves until death (with the exception of some eating disorders). The gastrointestinal tract is actually an amazing system that carries out several processes in order for the body to operate successfully. In order to understand this system is should begin with an overview of digestion, then explanation of the different parts of the gastrointestinal tract, and finally, nutrition.

The different processes that occur within the gastrointestinal tract begins with ingestion, then digestion, along with movement, then absorption, and elimination. Ingestion is the process of what humans eat by taking it internally by their mouths. After food has been ingested, the gastrointestinal tract either mechanically or chemically begins breaking down the food. For example, the mechanical process occurs when the teeth inside the mouth chew the food and the tongue moves the food around to be swallowed. And, the chemical process happens when specific enzymes released from almost all parts of the GI tract (does not include the large intestine) break down the food into simpler molecules for the cells to use. Next, with the aid of movement, food is, "...passed along from one organ to the next..." (Mader 144). Peristalsis is the specific type of movement that occurs within all of the organs of the gastrointestinal tract. Then, absorption of food occurs when the nutrients, "...cross the wall of the GI tract and enter the cells lining the tract..." (Mader 145). They are then diffused into the bloodstream where the cells can then utilize the nutrients for particular processes like, cellular respiration. And lastly, elimination occurs when particular nutrients are not needed by the body and are excreted out of the end of the GI tract called the anus. Cellular metabolism is also another important component of the GI tract. This occurs within each cell, inside the mitochondria. The mitochondria receives nutrients that have been digested and converts them into glucose and ATP. This is called cellular respiration. Cellular respiration consists of three cycles. The first cycle is called glycolysis. In glycolysis, glucose enters the cytoplasm of the cell and into the mitochondria. The process then, "...converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, and makes energy in the form of two molecules of ATP" (en.wikipedia.org). The next cycle is the citric acid cycle. This cycle, "...completes the breakdown of glucose" (Mader 54) by releasing carbon dioxide and producing two ATP per glucose. The last cycle, the electron transport chain, accepts electrons from glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, and passes them to next step. It is from this transfer of electrons that energy is secreted and used to produce thirty-two ATP per glucose. Although, if oxygen is not available in cells, the electron transport chain will discontinue operation and lead to fermentation. In accordance with these processes, each organ of has a significant role that aids in the function of the GI tract.

The gastrointestinal tract consists of several organs. The first is the mouth, where the food is placed. The mouth begins to mechanically break down the food by chewing it with the teeth as the tongue moves it around. Chemical digestion is also occurring, as the tongue's taste buds activate nerve impulses to the brain to release enzymes, like salivary amylase, from the salivary glands. Then, the food is formed into a small ball, called a bolus, to be passed to the pharynx and esophagus. The pharynx is a cavity located behind the mouth and nasal passages where food (and air) passes. As people swallow food, the pharynx is shut off, in order for the food to travel into the esophagus without getting caught in the glottis, or voice box. The esophagus moves the food by peristalsis to a valve, called the lower gastroesophageal sphincter, that is placed over the entrance to the stomach. Then, the stomach opens the valve and allows the food to enter. The stomach, "...stores food, initiates the digestion of protein, and controls the movement of chyme (partly digested food) into the small intestine" (Mader 148). It has three layers of muscle that contain deep pockets, called rugae, that contain gastric glands. The gastric glands produce gastric juice that contains the enzyme, pepsin, and hydrochloric acid that help breakdown proteins and kills any bacteria that is with the food. After the stomach has finished its process, peristalsis moves the food toward the end valve in the stomach, called the pyloric sphincter, where the food is released, a small amount at a time, into the small intestine. The small intestine is the main organ where the nutrients, carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids from the food, are finally digested and absorbed. It is inside the walls of the small intestine where enzymes are released such as, maltase (carbohydrate), peptidases (protein), and nucleosidases (nucleic acid), and starch is digested into glucose, protein is digested into amino acids, and lipids are digested into fatty acids. Also, the walls contain micro-hairs called, villi, where the food is absorbed into the blood capillaries. But, if too much of a nutrient is digested and absorbed by the small intestine, it can lead to obesity, which causes particular disorders like, type II diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Type II diabetes happens when, "...long time exposure to simple carbohydrates...reduce(s) the body's normal response to insulin, presumably because insulin is...in high concentrations in the blood" (highered.mcgraw-hill.com). Then the small intestine can not absorb the needed glucose energy for the cells. And cardiovascular disease occurs when too many fatty acid molecules are released into the small intestine and create plaque in the arteries. Along with the digestion of food in the small intestine, the pancreas, liver, and gall bladder also assist with this process. Located behind the stomach, the pancreas releases pancreatic juice into the top portion of the small intestine through the pancreatic duct. The pancreatic juice contains, "...sodium bicarbonate...(that) neutralizes acid chyme from the stomach" (Mader 152) and the enzymes, pancreatic amalyse, trypsin, and lipase, to digest starch, protein, and fat. It also releases the hormone insulin, that stimulates cells to use the broken down glucose for quick energy in cellular metabolism or store it as glycogen in the liver. The liver, along with storing glucose as glycogen, detoxifies the blood, stores fat soluble vitamins, makes urea (waste product) after digesting amino acids, and regulates cholesterol in the blood by producing bile salts. The bile salts are derived from the bile that is stored in the gallbladder by the common hepatic duct. The gall bladder also sends bile to the top portion of the small intestine, by the common bile duct, to emulsify the fats being digested. The last organ is the large intestine, where water, bacteria, dietary fiber, and other indigestible materials are made into feces. Then, peristalsis moves the feces to the rectum until it is ready to be expelled by the anus. The food that is digested by the gastrointestinal tract consists of an entire realm itself of nutrition. Figure 1: The gastrointestinal tract: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, pancreas, liver, gall bladder, and large intestine.

Nutrition is composed of nutrients and nutritious meals. Nutrients are, "...a component of food that performs a physiological function in the body...providing us with energy, promote growth and development, and regulate cellular metabolism" (Mader 158). There are macro nutrients, which are carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, and micro nutrients, which are minerals and vitamins. Carbohydrates are the most needed source of energy for the body. They can either be made of a single glucose molecules or many glucose molecules, which are termed simple complex carbohydrates. In reference to food, anything made from refined carbohydrates are not necessary for body functions and should be minimized in any diet. For example, mostly all processed foods, such as white breads, sugary breakfast cereals, cookies, crackers, etc., are striped of any essential carbohydrates during the manufacturing process, which could be harmful in the long run. Instead, complex carbohydrates, like whole grains, beans, fruits, vegetables, and nuts, provide the body with appropriate vitamins, minerals, and fiber. Figure 2: An example of a good sources of complex carbohydrates: whole grains, fruits, vegetables, beans, and nuts.
Proteins, "...are needed to supply the essential amino acids" (Mader 159). There are 20 different kinds of amino acids, but there are eight of them that are needed externally by diet and need to be replenished everyday. They can be found in foods such as, eggs, dairy products, meats, and legumes. But, over consumption of proteins can cause dehydration, from the excess amino acids being excreted in wastes, and kidney stones, due to calcium loss in wastes. Figure 3: An example of good sources of protein: eggs, meats, and legumes. Lipids can either be saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fats usually come from foods that are animal products like, meats and butter. This type of fat has been found to cause cardiovascular disease when consumed in large quantities. Unsaturated fats are usually components of oils. And is made of monounsaturated and/or polyunsaturated fats. This type of fat has been found to promote cardiovascular health from the essential fatty acids of omega three's and omega six's. Also, lipids are also composed of cholesterol, which is also recommend to be eaten in moderation due to increase risk of cardiovascular disease. The micro nutrients contain that of minerals and vitamins. Minerals contain the categories of major minerals and trace minerals. The major minerals, such as calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chloride, and magnesium, are, "...constituents of cells and body fluids and are structural components of tissues" (Mader 160). For example, calcium aids in the production of strong bones, nerve conduction, and muscle contraction. But, if too little or too much of calcium is present in the body, it can lead to stunted growth and low bone density or kidney stones. The trace minerals, such as zinc, iron, copper, iodine, selenium, and maganese, are, "...parts of larger molecules..." (Mader 160). For example, iron is found in hemoglobin and aids in hemoglobin synthesis. But, if too little or too much of iron is present in the hemoglobin, it can cause anemia or organ failure and death. Another micro nutrient, vitamins, are, "...organic compounds...that the body uses for metabolic purposes but is unable to produce in adequate quantity" (Mader 162). Vitamins can be separated into two different kinds. The first is fat-soluble vitamins that consist of A, D, E, and K. These type of vitamins are broken down by lipids within the body and can usually be found in dairy products, nuts, fruits, and vegetables. But, certain disorders can arise if too much or too little of each vitamin is present. The second type is water-soluble vitamins that consist of C, niacin, folic acid, pantothenic acid, biotin, and the B's. These are broken down by water molecules in the body and can usually be found in fruits, beans, nuts, dairy products, meat products, and vegetables. But, certain disorders can also happen if each is not taken within the recommended limits. In order to apply these nutrients to the human body, it is important to consume nutritious meals.

The drive to consume nutritious meals is based upon what people decide to eat, which is usually culturally influenced. But, in the United States, people are deciding what to eat by commercial influence and it's creating false, healthy advertising that is actually pure junk food. People in the U.S. are also eating more packaged and processed foods instead of creating optimal meals from fresh and real ingredients. For example, Michael Pollan states, "...it's...alot easier to slap a health claim on a box of sugary cereal than on a potato or carrot, with the perverse result that the most healthful foods in the supermarket sit there quietly in the produce section...while a few aisles over, the Coco Puffs and Lucky Charms are screaming about their new found whole-grain goodness" (http://www.nytimes.com/). In order to provide the body with a healthy diet, food should be viewed from a standard of positive solutions. For example, it can be the rebirth of a cultural and soulful influence back into the foods that people eat, which will provide long term health to humans, farming, and the entire biosphere. And it can consist of local, home-cooked, non-packaged, spiritually satiating foods.

The gastrointestinal tract is an amazing system that carries out several processes in order for the body to function correctly. It begins with the overview of digestion where food is ingested, digested, moved, absorbed, and eliminated throughout many different organs in the body. The different organs that help carry out the processes of the GI tract is the mouth, where food is mechanically and chemically digested; the pharynx and esophagus, where the food is collected and moved by peristalsis; the stomach and small intestine, where food is broken down into chyme by gastric juices and is digested and absorbed; the pancreas, liver and gall bladder, where digestion is assisted in the small intestine by ways of enzymes, storing energy, and emulsifying fats; and the large intestine, where unnecessary materials are excreted. The GI tract also needs the importance of nutrition from particular nutrients. They consist of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, minerals, and vitamins that properly carry out such processes. And lastly, nutritious meals need to be provided for the body by means of fresh, real, and spiritually satisfying foods. The body can survive for two weeks without any food before completely failing. But, the body contains many tools, such as the gastrointestinal tract, that, if treated properly, can provide a happy and healthful life to each individual.

Sources:
Pictures:
1. human.freescience.org/images/wikimages/433px...
2. t3.pacific.edu/teams/M00735/carbohydrates.jpg

3. www.americanphoto.co.jp/.../tabemono-71.jpg

Works:

1. Human Biology 10e. Mader, Sylvia S.

2. en.wikipedia.org

3. highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware/ala.do?alaid=ala_1013264

4. www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/magazine/28nutritionism.t.html?ei=5088&en=7c85a...

Nutrition Lab

Figure 1: Nutrition lab that added up all of my food choices for the day by calories, fat, saturated fat, cholesteral, sodium, carbohydrates (fiber and sugar), protein, and vitamins A, C, and calcium, and iron.

How healthy of a diet do you think this is? I think my diet for this day is moderately healthy, because I had a little bit of everything that is appropriate for my body. For example, I had a humungous salad that is equivalent to at least three servings of the vegetable group. I also had meals rich in complex carbohydrates such as, whole wheat bread and pasta. What would you cahnge about this day's eating, if anything? I would change the coco puffs I had for breakfast, because it doesn't really offer anything nutrious, just more of a sugar rush that left me feeling hunger just a few moments later. I also would change the frozen vanilla yogurt, because it is another one of those food choices that offers more sugar than anything essential or beneficial. Do you find this kind of nutritional tracking helpful? Why or why not? Yes, I find this kind of nutritional tracking helpful, because it me aware of what I am consuming and how much. For example, after everything was added together, I had found out that I had eaten a total of 87 grams of fat, which is much higher than the reccomended daily value, and 23 grams of saturated fat. It made me realize that I need to maybe choose some more heart healthier dishes.

Sources:

www.balancemindbodysoul.com/balamce/campus.asp

Blood Pressure Lab

Figure 2: Graph of the results listed in the table. The top two lines represent the male and female average systolic based on age

range. And the two bottom lines are
the male and female average diastolic.

Figure 1: Table of the results received from the blood pressure experiment. There are averages for male and female groups of different age ranges.

Figure 3: Chart that displays the ranges for optimal and normal blood pressure, then raises into the mild, moderate,and severe hypertension.

Blood Pressure

What factors affect the likelihood of hypertension?

1. State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.

A problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure is that when events occur at the same time, such as age and gender to blood pressure. it does not necessarily mean that this relationship causes such an outcome. There could be other factors that are in relationship to blood pressure.

2. Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group.

From the knowledge I have about the heart and circulatory system, I hypothesize that the average blood pressure will be higher when the age range of each gender is manipulated. And, I hypothesize that the average blood pressure will be even higher within males than females.

3. How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?

I will use this investigation screen to test my hypothesis by beginning with the lowest age range for males and then increasing the age range. Then, I'll do the same for the females. The steps I plan to take are: 1. select male gender 2. select lowest age range 3. measure blood pressure 4. record any blood pressure that is out of range 5. check patients history 6. find the average blood pressure for the group 7. record the systolic and diastolic average in the table 8. then increase age range 9. repeat steps 3-8 10. change gender to female 11. select lowest age range 12. repeat steps 3-8 13. compare males and females after all data has been collected. The data I will record will be any outstanding patients blood pressure, the patients history, and the average systolic and diastolic blood pressure for each gender and age range.

4. Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.

The results I received from the experiment showed that as the age range began to increase in the male gender, the average blood pressure also increased, especially when the age range went from 11-17 to 18-24 and 35-44 to 45-54. In the age range of 11-17, the average blood pressure was 118/77, but when it changed to 18-24, the average blood pressure jumped to 129/80. In the age range of 35-44, the average blood pressure was 130/82, but when it changed to 45-54, it jumped to 137/88. As the age range began to increase in the female gender, there weren't as many drastic changes in the average blood pressure, until increase from the age range 35-44 to 45-54. In the age range 35-44, the average blood pressure was 122/78, but when it changed to 45-54, it jumped to 130/80. Although the average blood pressure for each group stayed within the normal range, there were patients who exceeded the normal range, causing the average to rise. I also observed that with the patients who did exceed the normal range, were either overweight, had a family history of hypertension, had a high salt diet, and lacked exercise.

5. Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?

The result of the experiment did support my hypothesis, because as the age range increased, so did the average blood pressure. And, the male gender had higher averages than the female gender at each age range. Based on the experiment, the conclusion that I draw about the relationship of age and gender to to group blood pressure is that the male gender is at higher risk for high blood pressure as they get older than the female gender.

6. During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?

During the experiment, I did obtain blood pressure readings that were outside the normal range for the group being tested. The male age range 18-24 and the female age range 18-24, both had a person that exceeded the normal range. Then male age range 25-34, there was another person out of the normal range. The age range 35-44, for males and females, two were above normal in males, and one was above the normal range in females. Lastly, the age range 45-54, for females and males, two were above the normal range for females, and seven were above the normal range for males. I noticed that when I viewed the medical charts of those who were above the normal range of blood pressure, that they were either, both, or all overweight, had a family history of hypertension, had a high salt diet, lacked exercise, and consumed alcohol. These factors might of explained the high readings.

7. List risk factors associated with hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?

Risk factors associated with hypertension are: genetics, smoking, consumption of alcohol, poor dietary habits, obesity, and lack of physical exercise. Also, hypertension can lead to heart disease and stroke. Based on the observation, the risk factor that I think is most closely associated with hypertension is obesity.

8. What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at high risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?

The effect that obesity might have on blood pressure is that it can is can raise the blood pressure out of normal range, because the heart has to work harder in order for the body to function. But, obesity alone does not cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure. The other factors in combination with obesity are poor lifestyle choices such as smoking, high-salt or high-fat diet, lack of exercise, over consumption of alcohol, a family history of hypertension, and men (especially) and women of an older age range (45-54).

Sources:

Pictures:

Figure 3: www.dietandfitnessresources.co.uk/images/arti

Works and Lab pictures: www.mhhe.combiosci/genbio/virtual_labs/BL_08/BL_0...

Compendium Review Ch. 5-7 & AIDS supplement

Table of Contents:
I. Heart and Blood Vessels
A. Circulatory System

1. Types of blood vessels

a. arteries

b. capillaries

c. veins

B. The Heart

1. Passage of blood

a. Blood to external environment

b. Blood to cells of body

c. Diffusion

C. Regulation of blood flow

1. Blood pressure

a. radial artery

b. cartoid artery

II. Blood

A. Functions of Blood

B. Red Blood Cells

1. Production of

2. Process of carrying oxygen

3. Process of transporting carbon dioxide

4. Disorders

a. sickle-cell anemia

C. White Blood Cells

1. Types of white blood cells

III. Immunity

A. Foreign Invaders

1. Bacteria

2. Viruses

B. Nonspecific Defenses

1. Barriers to entry

2. Inflammatory response

C. Specific Defenses

1. T-cells

a. TCR's

b. clonal selection

2. B-cells

a. BCR's

b. clonal selection

D. Antibodies

E. Macrophages

IV. AIDS
A. HIV and AIDS

1. HIV Life Cycle

2. Transmission

3. Infections caused by HIV/AIDS

B. Epidemiology of Spread of AIDS

The human body is an amazing structure. And it is a very complex, functioning tool that allows the human race to live for such an expanded period of time. But what exactly makes up the internal workings of this complex tool? There are several things that make it possible for people's survival, but the main focus for this review will be four major subjects. They will be the heart and blood vessels, blood, immunity, and AIDS.

The heart and blood vessels consist of a paramount system called the circulatory system. The circulatory system performs the functions of pumping the heart in order for blood to flow through the blood vessels. And the, "...actual purpose of circulation is to service the cells" (Mader 86). This means that as the blood is pumped and flows through the blood vessels, the cells receive nutrients within the blood and wastes are taken away from the cells. This action allows for homeostasis to continue as it keeps a balance of necessary and unnecessary particles within the body. As the blood travels through the blood vessels, it moves throughout three different types of blood vessels.

The first type are the arteries. The arteries are made of three layers. The thinnest layer is called the epidothelium, which is located in the innermost part of the artery, the middle layer is much thicker than the inner layer, being mostly made of elastic tissue and smooth muscle, and the exterior layer is made of mainly connective tissue. Arteries have to, "...expand to accept the blood being forced into them from the heart, and then squeeze this blood on to the veins when the heart relaxes" (http://www.accessexcellence.org/). That is why they are made up of tissues with so much elasticity. The arteries also have branches of arterioles that eventually become capillaries. The second type of blood vessels are the capillaries. Capillaries are very small branches made of one layer of epithelial cells. These small branches make up subunits of capillary beds that are located within all aspects of the human body. The function of the capillaries is where the exchange of blood and the cells occur by providing oxygen for cellular respiration, nutrients for cell metabolism, immune cells for foreign microbes, and the removal of wastes. These processes occur with the aid of blood pressure and osmotic pressure within the capillary walls. At the arterial end (coming from the upper part of the heart) of a capillary, water exits due to the higher blood pressure than the osmotic pressure. And at the venule end (coming from the lower part of the heart) of a capillary, water enters due to the higher osmotic pressure than the blood pressure. But, in the midsection of the capillary, both the blood and osmotic pressures even out and this is where the oxygen, nutrients, and immune cells are provided for the cells and where the waste is removed. When the capillaries begin to become thicker they become venules, which leads to the veins. The third type of blood vessels are the veins. The veins are made of the same components of the arteries, but are much thinner, allowing them to expand more. Veins have valves that, "allow blood to flow only toward the heart and prevent the backward flow of blood when closed" (Mader 87). Veins take the blood back to the heart and repeats the circular process of blood flow from arteries to capillaries to veins and back to the heart.

Figure 1: Visual of the types of blood vessels

The heart is, "...a cone-shaped, muscular organ located between the lungs..." (Mader 88). It is a double pump consisting of two halves. The uppermost areas of the heart are the left and right atrium. And the lowermost areas are the left and right ventricles. The heart muscle allows for the atrium's and ventricles to pump at the same time, creating the passage of blood in three different ways. The first way, passing blood to the external environment, happens in the lungs, digestive system and urinary system. The lungs are brought oxygen by the right side of the heart and carbon dioxide is taken away by the left side of the heart. Then, the digestive system is provided with nutrients by the left ventricle. And lastly, metabolic wastes are released through the urinary system with the aid of the blood vessels. The second way, passing blood to the cells of the body, occurs from the pumping of the left side of the heart. Every tissue is provided with oxygen-rich blood and necessary nutrients and is rid of their oxygen-poor blood (carbon dioxide). And the last way, passing blood by diffusion, allows for the heart to create equilibrium by passing blood throughout the arteries and receiving them in the capillaries. The capillaries diffuses the necessary substances and returns the blood back to the heart. As the passage of blood continues by processes of the heart, they are also regulated by blood pressure.

Blood pressure is, "...the pressure of blood against the wall of the blood vessel" (Mader 92). While the blood is being pushed through the arteries by the pumping of the heart, the walls expand and then take there original shape again. And, if more oxygen is needed by the cells, the heart pumps more blood against the walls of the blood vessels to provide the needed oxygen. Blood pressure can be measured by this action, called the pulse. This can be found on the radial artery, which is located on the palm side of the wrist, and the cartoid artery, which is located on either side of the neck. The pulse provides a sense of the rate of the heart and can be determined by systolic values and diastolic values. For example, the normal range for stystolic pressure is 95-135. And the normal range for diastolic pressure is 50-90. When an adult exceeds the normal range, especially the stystolic, they have high blood pressure. which can lead to other complications with the heart and circulatory system. In accordance with the circulatory system, blood has several different aspects as well.

Blood is a crucial key in the body system's proper function and survival. And blood consists of several different functions. The first function is that, "blood is the primary transport medium" (Mader 106). As discussed earlier, blood provides oxygen and nutrients to the cells and removes wastes. The second function is that blood, "...defends the body against invasion of pathogens..." (Mader 106). There are particular blood cells that are designed to protect the body against foreign microbes by processes of phagocytosis and antibody secretion. Both of these processes destroy the pathogens. And the third function is, "blood has regulatory functions" (Mader 107). The blood helps regulate body temperature, liquid content of the blood, and blood pH. There two kinds of cells that make up blood called red and white blood cells.

The red blood cells are produced every second by mitosis inside of bone marrow. They do not have a nucleus or any organelles. Instead, red blood cells are mainly composed of hemoglobin, which is a protein that contains iron in the center of each amino acid chain. The internal space of red blood cells are, "...used for transport of oxygen..." (Mader 108). This occurs when the hemoglobin binds with the oxygen from the lungs. Then, the red blood cells move throughout the capillaries and release the oxygen into the other cells and tissues. Red blood cells also help transport carbon dioxide by allowing the gas to enter the interior of the cell and breaking down the gas with a special enzyme. Then, the blood is sent to the lungs and is released. But, disorders can arise with the involvement of red blood cells, such as sickle-cell anemia. Sickle-cell anemia is a genetic disorder that causes the red blood cells to have a sickle-shaped appearance from, "...a specific amino acid substitute in the hemoglobin..." (www.nslc.wustl.edu/sicklecell/). As these red blood cells pass through the capillaries in the circulatory system, they rupture, causing the appearance of balls underneath the skin in those who are infected. The other kind of cells that make up blood are the white blood cells.

Figure 2: Example of sickle-cell anemia in the bloodstream.

White blood cells, unlike red blood cells, have a nucleus, do not have hemoglobin, are much larger, and are translucent. But, they are produced in the red bone marrow, like red blood cells. White blood cells can be located in the tissue fluid and lymph system due to the occurrence of white blood cells traveling through small pores on the capillaries. Also, white blood cells are a major part of the immune system. They help fight infections by either the process of phagocytosis (engulfing the foreign microbe) or the production of antibodies (a protein that destroys the foreign microbe). There are several types of white blood cells that aid in the destruction of pathogens called: neutrophils, basophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes. The neutrophils are the first type of white blood cells to react to infection by a pathogen. In order for the neutrophils to rid the body of the pathogen, "...they suck up the unwanted substances..." (Mader 110). The basophils release histamine that triggers other cells to act on the invader. The monocytes are macrophages that also rid of pathogens by the process of sucking them up. And they help awaken other defenders of the body to assist in destruction of foreign microbes. And the lymphocytes consist of the T-cells and B-cells that perform the process of specific immunity to destroy pathogens. In accordance with white blood cells, immunity and the immune system has many other aspects as well. Figure 3: The different types of white blood cells such as, neutrophil, basophil, monocytes, and lymphocytes.

As pointed out earlier, the white blood cells aid the immune system in fighting infection. The types of foreign invaders that cause infections in the human body are: bacteria and viruses. Bacteria are independent, prokaryotic cells with their DNA located in the center of the cell. As the bacteria infects the individual, it reproduces by the process of binary fission. In this process, the the DNA within the original bacterial cell is copied. Then, the cell splits into two new bacterial cells that are exact copies of the original. Bacteria causes several diseases such as, strep throat, food poisoning, and tuberculosis. It can also stop cellular metabolism by the release of particular molecules called toxins. Viruses, on the other hand, are not composed of cells and resemble more to the structure of parasites. They can not live independently, but when they enter a host, they reproduce with the aid of particular enzymes and sometimes an RNA genome that are contained within their structure. Viruses cause several diseases such as, the common cold, the flu, and AIDS. In order for immunity to combat diseases produced by bacteria and viruses, it depends on its nonspecific and specific defenses.

Nonspecific defenses consist of the body's, "...built-in barriers, both physical and chemical, that serve as the first line of defense against an infection by pathogens" (Mader 128). For example, mucous membranes located within the respiratory tract try to prevent pathogens entrance by moving the invaders upwards towards the throat. The second line of defense that is used by the nonspecific defenses is the inflammatory response. When an individual has damaged tissue, chemicals are released to alert the neutrophils and macrophages to destroy any invading bacteria that is trying to enter. The external appearance of the individuals body from the inflammatory response will show swelling and redness with pain if pressure is applied to the area. Specific defenses occur when the nonspecific defenses have failed to rid of the infection. Specific defenses occur when it recognizes a cell that is foreign to the body (antigen) by aid of the lymphocytes, such as the B-cells and T-cells. The B-cells and T-cells have specific receptors to unfamiliar cells that are called B-cell receptors (BCR's) and T-cell receptors (TCR's) that allow them to bind to the antigens and rid them by the process of clonal selection. As clonal selection happens with the TCR's, the antigen must be presented to them by another cell in order for the TCR's to recognize it. Then, the TCR's examine the antigen and a normal cell to distinguish which is to be destroyed. The T-cells then multiply with the information as to which cells to kill and finish the process by apoptosis. As clonal selection happens with the BCR's, the antigen is immediately recognized and the BCR's undergo replication with the aid of the T-cells. Then, the B-cells become plasma cells, because, "...they have extensive rough endoplasmic reticulum for the mass production and secretion of antibodies to a specific antigen" (Mader 131). Then, the process is finished when the infection has cleared and apoptosis occurs. Along with T-cells and B-cells, antibodies and macrophages are also very vital to specific defenses.

Antibodies, created by the B-cells, attach to antigens and create an immune complex. It is from this that white blood cells are signaled over to the complex in order for them to rid of the antigen. Macrophages are the most powerful type of phagocytes and can, "...enlist the help of other lymphocytes to carry out specific defense mechanisms" (Mader 129). For example, macrophages play a major role in the process of TCR's clonal selection process by presenting the antigen to the T-cells. Although the immune system is a very strong and powerful force against bacteria and viruses, there is a particular virus, AIDS, that has shut down the power of the immune system completely. Figure 4: Cartoon depicting the process of antibodies. They recognize the foreign invaders, attach to them, and plan to cease and destroy.

The acquired immune deficiency syndrome, or AIDS, is caused by the human immune deficiency virus, or HIV. HIV, "...specifically attacks Helper T-cells and without adequate supply of Helper T-cells, the immune system can not signal B-cells to produce antibodies...to kill infected cells" (www.biology.arizona.edu/immunology/tutorials/AIDS). An individual infected with HIV cannot readily fight off infection, due to the weakening of the immune system, and eventually becomes sick with other types of diseases. When HIV turns into full blown AIDS, an individual, "...develops one or more of a number of opportunistic infections" (Mader 344). These types of infections will be mentioned later. The process for which HIV reproduces can be described by the HIV life cycle. The HIV life cycle occurs in eight steps. The first step is when the HIV attaches to the T-cell's or macrophage's exterior membrane. Then, HIV conjoins with the T-cell or macrophage and enters the interior. The third step is when the HIV releases its nucleic acid of RNA into the cytoplasm of the T-cell or macrophage. Afterwards, the reproductive cycle of HIV, called reverse transcription, occurs. This converts the HIV's RNA to DNA. The fifth step consists of the newly created DNA from the HIV's RNA, enters the nucleus of the cell and combines with the DNA of the cell. This makes the HIV virus part of the cell's DNA information. Then, more of the HIV's RNA is produced, which creates the synthesis of translation. The seventh step is the creation of another viral cell. And lastly, the newly created HIV cell is released from the infected T-cell or macrophage. HIV can also reproduce by certain ways of transmission. HIV can be transmitted by sexual contact, the sharing of intravenous needles with those who are infected, and through blood tranfusions of blood that has been infected by the virus. Also, HIV can be transmitted through bodily fluids such as, "...blood, semen, vaginal fluid, and breastmilk..." (Mader 349). Once an indivdual is infected with the HIV virus and leads to the diagnosis of AIDS, they can also receive other infections such as, pnemonia, cancer of the blood vessels, tuberculosis, parasitic infection of the brain, and cervical cancer. And, unfortunately, these other diseases can actually kill the infected individual than the actual virus itself. The epidemiology of AIDS has shown that all across the globe, AIDS is prevalent everywhere. For example, populations located within Africa and Asia are the largest areas with those who are infected, but each country is on the rise for infection.

The human body is an amazing tool that allows the human race to survive for such an expanded period of time. The four major subjects that make up the complex interworkings of the body are heart and blood vessels, blood, immunity, and AIDS. In the area of the heart and blood vessels, the arteries, capillaries, and veins all worked together in a circular cycle to take blood away from the heart and to the heart. The heart allowed for blood to rid of wastes and provide cells with oxygen and nutrients by the process of a double-pump. And the regulation of blood flow could be determined by the blood pressure from the radial and cartoid arteries. In the subject of blood, the functions in transporting nutrients, defending the body against pathogens, and regulatory patterns, either occured with the assistance of red blood cells or white blood cells. And sometimes, disorders can arise in blood cells such as sickle-cell anemia. In the topic of immunity, foreign invaders such as, bacteria and viruses, can be defeated by nonspecfic or specific defenses. For example, barriers to entry of pathogens, T-cells, B-cells, antibodies, and macrophages. And lastly, the subject that can actually shorten the lifespan of the human race, the virus AIDS. AIDS, which is caused by HIV, can be transmitted several ways and can kill an individual by other means of disease. It is from the understanding of these four subjects that the human race can learn to love and appreciate the tool that they are given to survive.

Sources:

Pictures:

1. www.guidaut.com/.../heart/images/figure8_lg.jpg

2. medicine.osu.edu/.../index.htm

3. www.biologymad.com/Immunology/wbc.jpg

4. www.nearingzero.net/screen.res/n2159.jpg

Works:

1. Human Biology 10e. Mader, Sylvia S.

2. www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/CC/heart_anatomy.html

3. www.nslc.wustl.edu/siclecell/part2/molecular.html

4. www.biology.arizona.edu/immunology/tutorials/AIDS/response.html

Lab Project #1 Pictures: The CELL

1. This is a model of a cell using materials: plastic bag, stryofoam ball, a marble, yellow, blue, red and green clay, steel wool, macaroni noodles, raisins, the candy dots, candy peanut, rubber bands, and straws.




2. This is the nucleus (styrofoam ball) molded with yellow clay for the nuclear membrane and inserted with a marble to represent the nucleolus. The plastic bag is the cell membrane. The nucleus is the storage site for genetic information. The cell membrane protects the cell and allows particular substances inside and outside the cell.


3. This is the rough (steel wool) and smooth (elbow macaroni) endoplasmic reticulum. The rough endoplasmic reticulum, which is studded with ribosomes, is the location for protein synthesis.


4. This is the ribosmoes (red clay balls) and the vesicles (raisins). The ribosomes assist in protein synthesis on the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The vesicles break down cell substances.


5. This is the lysosomes (the candy dots) and the mitochondria (candy peanut). The lysosomes takes the proteins and lipids from the endoplasmic reticulum and transports them to the golgi apparatus. The mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell, because energy conversion, called cellular respiration, occurs.




6. This is the golgi apparatus (rubber bands) and the cilia (bundle of straws). The golgi apparatus further modifies the proteins and lipids brought by the lysosomes. The cilia allow parts of the cell to move, allowing processes occur and continue.


7. This is the beginning of the model of my cell. There is the cell membrane, the cell's foundation, and the nucleus containing the nucleolus.




8. This is the finished model of the cell containing the nucleus, the rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, the ribosomes, the lysosomes, the golgi apparatus, the vesicles, the mitochondria, and the cilia.


9. This is a model of mitosis using the materials: red, green, and yellow clay, rubber bands, and the candy dots. This is the first stage, prophase, where the chromosomes ( red and yellow clay) and spindles (rubber bands and the candy dots) begin to form.



10. This is the second stage, metaphae, where the spindles line the chromosomes along the center of the nucleus.


11. This is the third stage, anaphase, where the spindles pull the chromosomes apart a pull them towards opposite ends of the nucleus.


12. This is the last stage, telophase, where the chromosomes start to turn back into chromatid as the spindles disappear. The cell splits and two identical cells are formed.




13. This is a model of DNA replication using the materials: green floral wire and twist ties. This is the DNA strand (green floral wire) and the complementary base pairs (twist ties) holding the two strands together. In DNA replication, part of the strand unzips and allows for a new strand to be copied and made from the old strand.


14. This is a model of transcription using the materials: green and black floral wire and sour gummy worms. This is the DNA strand (green floral wire) with its complementary base pairs (sour gummy worms) and an RNA strand (black floral wire) with its base pairs (sour gummy worms). In the process transcription, the DNA strand is broken apart in order for the RNA strand to connect to it with its complementary base pairs and create the messenger RNA.




15. This is a model of translation using the materials: black floral wire, green and yellow clay, sour gummy worms, and the candy dots. This is the messenger RNA strand (black floral wire) the base pairs (sour gummy worms), the ribosome (yellow clay), the transfer RNA, which is a molecule that transports proteins by long protein chains (green clay) ,and the proteins ( the candy dots). In the process translation, the mRNA binds to the ribosome along with the tRNA.


16. This is the ribosome moving along the mRNA, three base pairs at a time.




17. This is where each base pair initiates what proteins shall be made and the proteins are added to the long protein chain connected to the tRNA.


18. This is where the process ends when one of the proteins says "stop." The mRNA and tRNA release from the ribosome and complete protein synthesis.