Compendium Review Chapters 1-4

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Table of Contents:
I. Chapter One: Life Science

A. The characteristics of life

1. Organization
a. levels of organization
2. Use of materials and energy
3. Reproduction
4. Growth and development
5. Homeostasis
6. Respond to stimuli
7. Evolutionary history

II. Chapter Two: Chemistry of Life
A. Macromolecules
1. Carbohydrates
a. simple carbohydrates
b. complex carbohydrates
2. Lipids
a. fats
b. oils
c. phospholipids
3. Proteins
a. functions
4. Nucleic acids
1. DNA
2. RNA
3. ATP

III. Chapter Three: The Cell
A. Types of cells

1. Prokaryotic

a. origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts

2. Eukaryotic

a. parts of cell

i. plasma membrane
* diffusion
* osmosis
* facilitated transport
* active transport
* endocytosis and exocytosis
ii. Nucleus
* structure
* functions
iii. Ribosomes
* protein synthesis
iv. Endomembrane System
* endoplasmic reticulum
* golgi apparatus
* lysosomes
v. Cilia and flagella
vi. Mitochondria
B. Cellular respiration and metabolism
1. Glycolysis
2. Citric acid cycle
3. Electron transport chain
C. Fermentation
IV. Chapter Four: Body Systems
A. Types of Tissues
1. Connective tissue
a. Fibrous connective tissue
b. Supportive connective tissue
c. Fluid connective tissue
i. blood
ii. lymph
2. Muscular tissue
a. skeletal
b. smooth
c. cardiac
3. Nervous tissues
4. Epithelial tissue

The study of life can be defined by the science Biology. And the study of human life can be drawn from the study of Human Biology. It is from this world of scientific study that so many theories today have given us a chance to understand the world around us. One of the distinct discoveries of biology is that, "...all living things share the same characteristics" (Mader 2).
These characteristics are: 1. organization, 2. use of materials and energy, 3. reproduction, 4. growth and development, 5. homeostasis, 6. respond to stimuli, and 7. evolutionary history.

The first characteristic, organization, creates a sophisticated step ladder system beginning from the atom, the smallest unit of an element, to the biosphere, which is the entire earth that contains all the living things. In the system of organization, each step leads into the other, for example, atom leading to molecule, molecule to cell, cell to tissue, tissue to organ, organ to organ system organ system to organism, organism to population, population to community, community to ecosystem, and ecosystem to biosphere. This system of organization displays that all livings things are interrelated in some way, from the microscopic to the world. The second characteristic, the use of materials and energy, is a perfect example of how living things need the external environment for survival. For example, the use of food from outside sources, like a bird searching for insects in the environment, is later metabolized and used for energy, like the same bird being able to continue maintenance of its habitat. The third characteristic, reproduction, is a very important element within every species. The reason being is that it, "...create(s) a copy of themselves and ensure(s) the continuance of their own kind" (Mader 4). The fourth characteristic, growth and development, describes that from the development of the first cell, life of the cell, and death of the cell, it is constantly changing. For example, when the first egg cell is fertilized by the sperm cell, it immediately begins to grow at a rapid rate. It develops into a fetus and then to an adult, and eventually perishes after an allotted time frame. The fifth characteristic, homeostatsis, shows that when a living thing reacts to its external environment, the internal environment will be kept in a normal range of limitations. For example, when the temperature changes externally, such as hot or cold, a person will internally sweat to cool down from the hot air, or internally shiver to warm up from the cold air. The sixth characteristic, respond to stimuli, is also another way for living things to maintain homeostasis and survival. For example, if a person is hungry, they are going to respond to food by moving towards it to satiate themselves. And the last characteristic, evolutionary history, explains the, "unity and diversity of life" (Mader 5). It is from evolution that there are so many different living things within the biosphere. Along with common characteristics in all living things, they also contain the macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

The macromolecule, carbohydrates, consists of simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates. The simple carbohydrates are monosaccharides, one of them being the sugar glucose, and disaccharides, one of them being maltose which is created by two glucose molecules. These simple carbohydrates provide quick energy for a living things to facilitate. Complex carbohydrates consist of polysaccharides such as starch(potatoes), glycogen(stored form of glucose in the liver), and cellulose(in plant cell walls). Each of these polysaccharides are broken down to the single sugar unit, glucose, and eventually become stored energy. The second macromolecule, lipids, is broken down into to fats, oils, and phospholipids. Fats and oils are created by the reaction of glycerol molecule with three fatty acid chains, whereas phospholipids contain a phosphate group in place of the third fatty acid chain. There functions consist of long-term energy storage and protection of major organs by creating a barrier in the cell membrane from the external environment. The third macromolecule, proteins, attribute to many different systems that keep a living thing in working order. Proteins help catalyze reactions, transport cells, toughen immune systems, influence hormones, and allow movement for cells. There several different types of proteins that have chains of amino acids, each containing a particular function. And proteins cannot function properly without the composition of their usual shape, if something goes awry, they are discarded. The last macromolecule, nucleic acids, consist of DNA, RNA, and ATP. DNA contains the genetic code, which aids in the sequence of protein's amino acids. It's structure is made of the sugar deoxyribose, the bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytocine, and a phosphate. It is a double stranded, double helix, that creates a spiraling ladder appearance. The steps of the ladder contain the base pairs (adenine with thymine and guanine with cytosine) that is an on-going replication of the gene sequence. RNA aids in the translation of DNA's instructions for the sequence of amino acids and is a main component in protein synthesis. Unlike DNA, RNA is made of the sugar ribose, but contains the same bases, except for thymine, where uracil is used. And it is only a single stranded. Lastly, ATP, is the high energy molecule of the cell, because during cellular processes, it releases energy that is used to do metabolic activities. In regards to cellular processes, the cell contains several different parts and performs many different procedures that are important to the existence of life.

The cell, which is the, "...basic unit of life" (Mader 42), consist of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells were the first cells to develop in the environment. They lack a nucleus and are bounded by a double membrane, which prokaryotic cells are not, but scientific study has discovered that from prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells were developed. For example, mitochodria in animal cells are bounded by a double membrane and chloroplasts in plant cells also contain a double membrane. This might of occurred from a prokaryotic cell engulfing a eukaryotic cell and in turn evolving an entirely new structure of cells. Eukaryotic cells, which contain a nucleus, consists of many different parts that enable many different functions. The first part of a eukaryotic cell, which is also in porkaryotes, is the plasma membrane. This is the phospholipid layer that separates the external environment from the internal environment of the cell. And allows particular particles to enter and exit through processes of diffusion, osmosis, facilitated transport, active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis. Diffusion can be described as a constant of movement of molecules that distribute from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until everything is equally distributed. And it allows molecules to move freely across the plasma membrane without the use of cellular energy. Osmosis is the, "...diffusion of water across a plasma membrane" (Mader 47) that also is tonic, which contains a concentration of solute within the water. This process, without the use of cellular energy, helps particles pass through the plasma membrane that cannot move into the structure freely. Facilitated transport, which also requires no cellular energy, helps solutes pass through the plasma membrane with the assistance of proteins. For example, a solute of glucose can be moved across the membrane with the assistance of the glucose transporter protein. Active transport requires the cellular energy broken down by ATP to move molecules against the natural flow of concentration. For example, the sodium potassium pump "...pumps ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell" (www.highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware) moving the ions from lower concentration to higher concentration. And lastly, the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis, uses cellular energy to either engulf a substance into the plasma membrane(endocytosis) or secretes a substance out of the plasma membrane. The second part of an eukaryote is the nucleus. The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear envelope and contains rodlike structures called chromatin. Inside the chromatin, or chromosome, is the storage site for the genetic code, where DNA and RNA specify the proteins of the cell. The third part of the cell are the ribosomes. Located in the endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes perform the important function of protein synthesis of the cell. For example, ribosomal RNA, or rRNA, helps develop the twenty different amino acids through the chemical pathway process, which develops a protein properly in a series of products and reactants. The fourth part of an eukaryote is the endomembrane system that contains the endoplasmic reticulum, the golgi apparatus, and the lysosomes. The endoplasmic reticulum contains two parts. The first part is called the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where protein synthesis occurs by the implanted ribosomes. Then the synthesized proteins are either included within the rough ER or exported to other parts of the cell. The second part is called the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, where synthesis of phospholipids occurs. After the proteins and phopholipids are sythesized they are transported to the golgi apparatus. At this location, the received proteins and lipids are modified by processing, packaging, and secretion. In the membranes of the golgi apparatus are sacs called lysosomes. Lysosomes have enzymes that break down substances that help sustain the strength of a cell. The fifth part of an eukaryotic cell are the cilia and flagella. Cilia and flagella, both hairlike structures, allow the cell to move. For example, the digestive tract is lined with cilia in order for particles to move along the intestines for modification; and the sperm cell's tail is a flagellum, that allows it to swim towards an egg cell. And the sixth part of an eukaryote is the mitochondria. The structure of a mitochondria is enclosed by a double membrane and contains a internal matrix that is surrounded by small shelves called cristae. It is often called the, "...powerhouse of the cell..." (Mader 52) because it breaks down glucose into carbon dioxide and water and converts glucose energy into ATP. This process that occurs in the mitochondria is called cellular respiration, which consists of three cycles. The first cycle is called glycolysis. In glycolysis, glucose enters the cytoplasm of the cell and into the mitochondria. The process then, "...converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, and makes energy in the form of two molecules of ATP" (http://en.wikipedia.org). The next cycle is the citric acid cycle. This cycle, "...completes the breakdown of glucose" (Mader 54) by releasing carbon dioxide and producing two ATP per glucose. The last cycle, the electron transport chain, accepts electrons from glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, and passes them to next step. It is from this transfer of electrons that energy is secreted and used to produce thirty-two ATP per glucose. Although, if oxygen is not available in cells, the electron transport chain will discontinue operation and lead to fermentation. This produces very little ATP and creates an environment of toxicity to cells called lactate. Along with the structure and functions of a cell, combinations of cells called tissue, that perform a common function, that are vital to the continuance of life.

There are four major kinds of tissue. They are connective tissue, muscular tissue, nervous tissue, and epithelial tissue. Connective tissue, "...binds and supports body parts" (Mader 62). This type of tissue is very flexible because of its specialized cells, ground substance, which can be either solid or liquid, and protein fiber, such as collagen, reticular, and elastic fibers. There are three types of connective tissue. The first type, fibrous connective tissue, is a jellylike substance that allows organs to expand, can be stored for insulation, and can create tendons and ligaments for proper movement. For example, fibrous connective tissue can be within the lungs (expansion), around kidneys (insulation), and between muscle to bone (tendons). The second type, supportive connective tissue, is made up of kinds of cartilage that are defined by the type of tissue fiber. This is also very flexible, but grows at a slower rate than fibrous tissue. They can be found in the nose, outer ear, and wedges of knee joints. The last type, fluid connective tissue, consists of blood and lymph. The blood, "...transports nutrients and oxygen to tissue..." (Mader 64) and contains red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The red blood cells carry oxygen to the cells, the white blood cells engulf pathogens and create antibodies, and platelets help the clotting process during an injury. The second major kind of tissue is muscular tissue. Muscular tissue allows the free movement of body parts. It is made up of proteins actin and myosin, which contribute to three types of muscular tissue. The first type, skeletal muscle, have striped cells due to the placement of the proteins and are connected with voluntary movement of body parts. Another kind, smooth muscle, have the appearance of smooth cells. It is an involuntary muscle movement that happens within the walls of the digestive tract and blood vessels. And the last type, cardiac muscle, has the combined appearance of the skeletal and smooth muscle. This muscle type is also involuntary and is accounted for the pumping of the heart. The third major kind of tissue is nervous tissue. Nervous tissue is made of, "...nerve cells called neurons and neuroglia..." (Mader 66). The neurons is a particular cell that has the structure of a dendrite, which is an antenna that receives signals from the senses, an axon, which is a conductor of nerve impulses, and a cell body, which is the housing area for the nucleus and cytoplasm. The neuroglia are present for the purpose of constant nourish of the neuron, so it will continue working efficiency. The functions of the nervous tissue are the response to stimuli by input of the senses, then an understanding of the stimulus being received by internal intergration, and the action movement to stimuli by motor output. The last type of major tissue is epithelial tissue. Epithelial tissue consists of, "...tightly packaged cells that form a continuous layer...covers surfaces and lines body cavities" (Mader 68). There are two types of epithelial tissue called simple and stratified epithelia. Simple epithelia protects, absorbs nutrients, and can be a part of active transport with a single layer of tissue. For example, the air sacs in the lungs are lined with simple epithelia to protect the this organ, the digestive tract is lined with this type of epithelia to modify nutrients, and there is a layer of this tissue in particular glands, such as the thyroid and sweat glands. Stratified epithelia also helps protect the certain body parts, but with several layers of tissue. This can be found within the esophagus and vagina.

Human biology has given us a chance to understand the world around us. "...(A)ll living things share the same characteristics" (Mader 2) such as organization, use of materials and energy, reproduction, growth and development, homeostatsis, respond to stimuli, and an evolutionary history. Life is made up of macromolecules, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, that carry out processes such as energy release and protein synthesis. Also, living things can distinguised by the makeup of two types of cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic, which both contain such structures as a plasma membrane and mitochondria, and functions of diffusion and cellular respiration. Lastly, the four major kinds of tissue, connective, muscular, nervous, and epithelial, aid in body support, free movement of body parts, response through sensory receptors, and protections of external and internal surfaces. It is with each section that a living thing is able to thrive properly within its environment.

Sources:
Human Biology 10e Sylvia S. Mader

www.highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_respiration